Theoretical perspectives in sociology

As you are aware by now, there is rarely any one settled sociological view on anything. Instead, sociologists can be (loosely!) divided into a number of theoretical perspectives. Sociologists within the same perspective tend to view the social world in the same way, focus on the same types of issues, and use the same concepts. This may seem difficult at first, but it works to your advantage in the exam as you can play one perspective off against another, in order to evaluate. ("Although Functionalists say this, Marxists would say that..." or "The feminist view is blah blah blah, however, this can be criticised by the New Right, who say..." etc.) So you need to revise the material on perspectives that you already know. You looked at different perspectives on Families & Households, and also looked at perspectives in general after the AS exam. Sociology in Focus has a brief outline of Functionalism and Marxism on p. 15-16; then a very detailed section on p.668-675. Feminism is dealt with on p. 116-120.

Functionalist views on Religion Functionalists are concerned with how societies maintain themselves in an orderly fashion. They say that societies try to generate value consensus, which is when individuals share the same norms & values. When studying institutions such as religion, they ask themselves: "What part does religion (or the family...or the education system...or the media...) play in maintaining social order? What are its functions for society as a whole?" Durkheim argued that it was the function of religion to distinguish the sacred from the profane. This shared sense of the sacred helps to bind societies together. Durkheim looked at studies of Australian Aborigines, who had a religion called totemism. In worshipping their totem, a tribe was worshipping a symbol of itself. This created social solidarity through a collective conscience. Malinowski was an anthropologist who studied the Trobriand Islands. (Again, a small-scale, preliterate society - do these ideas apply to industrial societies like the UK?) He found that the tribe used religion in coping with life crises, and with prediction and control. This helps prevent social disruption and unifies the group. American Functionalist Talcott Parsons said that religion provides "core values" for societies, and tries to make sense of unanswerable questions about death and the meaning of life. By strengthening norms, religion creates cultural homogeneity.

Also have a look at Bellah and his ideas of how civil religion helps to give Americans a faith in their country and their way of life.

Evaluation?

As well as remembering some of the above, you should be able to apply it to everyday situations. Making sense of bereavement? Church attendance increasing in America in the aftermath of the terrorist attacks. Prediction and control? Remember how you started praying when your rabbit got sick or when you thought you (or girlfriend) might be pregnant (Joke!). You should also be able to evaluate the theory. It doesn't explain increasing secularisation (decline in religion and its influence). It doesn't explain how religion can often be the source of conflict rather than harmony: Northern Ireland, between Arabs & Jews, between different churches.

Marxist approaches to religion Marxists are generally concerned with how features such as religion reflect the class conflict (between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat) in capitalist societies. In particular, how social phenomena such as religion are used to keep the proletariat/working class in a situation of exploitation and oppression.

Marx himself viewed religion as a symptom of mankind's unhappiness and alienation under exploitative conditions. Unable to see their own "godlike" qualities, people projected them out onto a mythical "heaven". Marx's famous quote is that "religion is the opium of the people", by which he means that it acts like a drug to dull the pain of oppression. It promises a better life after death, and encourages people to have idle dreams about an impossible existence in heaven. In addition, Marxists stress the active role that religion has in supporting capitalism. It encourages people to be meek and docile ("turn the other cheek"); legitimates private property ("thou shalt not steal") and accept things as they are.

Evaluation? Empirical evidence shows us that poorer countries and lower classes are relatively more religious. There are often close links between powerful churches and the ruling class (the Queen is head of the Church of England). These facts seem to support the Marxists' position. On the other hand, however, there are examples of religious people fighting against capitalism on behalf of the proletariat (see material on "worker priests". Islam, a major world religion, forbids the charging of interest on loans, which is very anti-capitalist. And perhaps the working class are now kept in their place by new and more effective agencies of social control such as the mass media (football and soap operas as the new religion?) and consumption (shopping as the new religion?)

Feminist views of religion

Many feminists would say that religion (like the family, and the welfare state...) is another site of patriarchy. It is a place where women are oppressed by men, and it serves to eproduce this oppression and spread it throughout the wider society. The Catholic Church is a favourite target. It is against women's rights such as contraception, abortion, and divorce. It is headed and run exclusively by men. God is seen in male terms; Jesus is a man; and although there is great respect for the Virgin Mary, she is hardly a useful role model for most women!

Islam has also been criticised on similar grounds. We will look at the practice of veiling, which many feminists see as oppressive. Watson's qualitative research, on the other hand, tries to show that veiling can be liberating for women.

Further arguments against the feminist view of religion being always patriarchal include the C.ofE. now accepting women priests; and the growth of some new religious movements which value femininity, such as Wicca and "Earth Goddesses".

Stark & Bainbridge

Although these American sociologists are not in any particular perspective, knowing their general theory of religion will give you an edge over students who only know perspectives. They start from the (reasonable!) assumption that individuals try to maximise their happiness. Certain things cannot be changed, however, and a very important one is the idea that we are all going to die some day. Religions, say S&B, offer compensators. These are the promise that the believer will gain eternal life and happiness in the hereafter - a bit like an I.O.U. The compensators are offered in exchange for the support of the individual for the church: giving money, practical help, and public displays of allegiance. Hence, the theory is called an exchange theory. Religion is a "trade in compensators". Knowing this theory is extremely valuable in the exam, because it gives you a distinct edge over all the other bozos who only revise perspectives. You can use it to evaluate perspectives. Whereas functionalists claim that religion serves the interests of society, and Marxists claim that religion serves the interests of capitalism, S&B remind us that it is an individual choice that the religious person makes: they are meeting their individual needs. And whereas Marxists argue that religion will fade away after the proletarian revolution (no need for the opium as there is no pain in a communist society!), S&B say that this is imposible, as people will always have a need for compensators. This is also extremely useful when we come to debate whether secularisation (the decline of religion and its effects) is occurring. S&B would say that it cannot occur.

In any case, you will need to read more widely than just one textbook!!