Salut, mes petits! :o)
Ce travail est dû le 4 décembre 2009! NO LATES!
All quizzes AND games! :o)
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READING FOR THE HISTORY MATERIAL - Google images that are mentioned :o)
PREHISTORIC PERIOD
Evidence of early man dates from the Paleolithic period in France. They left incredible cave paintings. The most well-known are at Lascaux.
Some teenage boys stumbled across Lascaux in 1940. The cave paintings date from about 15,000 B.C. They are associated with Cro-Magnon people.
GALLO-ROMAN: CELTIC AND CLASSICAL PERIOD
Celtic culture lasted from the late 5th century B.C. to the 1st century A.D. Roman occupation from the 1st century to the 5th century A.D. saw the building of towns and the creation of artifacts.
MEGALITHS, CLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE: ST. JEAN BAPTISTRY AT POITIERS
MEDIEVAL FRANCE: ROMANESQUE PERIOD
After the fall of Rome, France was ruled by regional tribes. Christianity spread during this period and church-building flourished. The few artifacts that remain from this period are referred to as Merovingian, named after the line of Frankish kings beginning with Clovis I in the 5th century who was the first king in the area to convert to Christianity. Merovingian churches, with floor plans based on the Roman basilica, had stone walls, timber roofs, prominent bell towers, and echoed classical motifs in their ornamentation.
The Carolingian period began with Charlemagne’s consolidation of power in the 8th century, being named the first Holy Roman Emperor. A member of the powerful tribe of the Franks, he conquered France down to the Pyrenees into northern Spain. He crossed the Rhine river and conquered Germany, Switzerland and Austria, even into modern Hungary. To the north, he conquered Belgium. And in 774 AD Charlemagne also conquered the Lombards in northern Italy.
The most significant artistic and architectural achievements during this time included:
• A new interpretation of the Roman basilica, with a focus on the western façade with towers and practical innovations
• The creation of illuminated manuscripts in continental Europe, imitating achievements in the British Isles
• The development of lower-case letters in manuscript writing
• Ivory carving and metal working, though there are not many remaining metal artifacts
Charlemagne’s improvements are often termed the “Carolingian Renaissance.” Besides the achievements in the arts, this long period of consistent rule also produced:
• A silver standard for money
• An organized administrative system based on local governors (counts)
• The first large unified territory in Europe since the fall of the western Roman empire
• Classical studies for the clergy
• Standardization elements of rule such as the creation of a basic rights document some 400 years before such a document appeared in England as the Magna Carta
While Charlemagne’s kingdom did not have an official capital, he spent a great deal of time at Aachen (Aix-la-Chappelle).
In larger churches, several important innovations were made, including the construction of an entrance facade flanked by towers; an ambulatory, allowing worshipers to circulate without disturbing services; and the use of the composite pier instead of a simple, massive column to support the upper walls and roof above the nave.
VEZELAY
These buildings employed the ingenious Roman arch. This type of arch was developed by the Romans to support roofs of stone and stone-based materials, such as rudimentary concrete. The crucial element was the use of a key stone.
All the weight was thrust outward to the base of the sides of the arches rather resting on the top pushing downward. Walls were very thick. Even though such buildings looked boxy and suggested a dark interior, later medieval constructions were well-lit by a row of windows that ran along the upper portions of the walls. This was called a clerestory, and it also reduced the overall weight of the walls.
If you lined up a series of Roman arches, you have an arcade. If you line up a series of Roman arches to form the ceiling of a corridor, it is called a barrel vault. If you crossed two Roman arches at a 90° angle, you have a groin vault. Enormous amounts of space were enclosed with such vaulting.
The use of the Roman arch allowed for buildings to be much larger, both in square feet and in height. However, because of the strain on the outside walls, there were limits to the height of the Romanesque buildings.
The principal fulfillment of the devout medieval Christian was a pilgrimage to Rome, or to one of the many European shrines that contained holy relics. Pilgrimage routes crossed national boundaries to shrines as distant as Santiago de Compostela in Spain, and churches were built along these well-traveled routes, many of which traversed France. Romanesque sculpture developed as decorations in these pilgrimage churches and is characterized by its highly stylized depictions of natural forms. The most prominent location for religious sculpture was in the tympanum over the main west door leading to the center aisle of the church. Here artists depicted scenes from the life of Christ or other subjects familiar to pilgrims and suitable for their contemplation. Sculpture also adorned columns, capitals, cloisters, and crypts.
Origially a Roman camp, Chinon Castle was developed during the reign of Henry II, Henry Plantagenêt, Count of Anjou. He was crowned King of England in 1154. The castle was rebuilt and extended, becoming one of his favorite residences. Chinon was included in the French royal estates in 1205, but it was during the Hundred Years War that the town took on a new lease of life. The heir apparent, the future Charles VII, had sought refuge in 1418 in those provinces that had remained faithful to him and made lengthy stays with his court in Chinon. In 1429, Joan of Arc came here to acknowledge him. The castle was at the height of its glory. Carcassonne, a nearly complete medieval fortress and town, was mostly constructed until the 13th century. The site was occupied from 3500 B.C. onwards.
Angers was built by King St Louis in 13C. In 1373, the King of France, Charles V, lent his brother Louis I, Duke of Anjou, the manuscrpt of the Apocalypse. This inspired the Duke to commission large tapestries. Today the castle of Angers houses a tapestry museum that includes the famous Apocalypse series. It is 140 meters long.
MEDIEVAL FRANCE: GOTHIC PERIOD
The Gothic style grew out of the Romanesque in a surge of activity that began in the mid-12th century. The increasing affluence of that period brought new commercial centers into prominence. A key element of Gothic churches is the pointed arches. Another element with increased emphasis was the spire and flamboyant decorations, (i.e., flaming).
Mercantile interests sponsored the construction of great cathedrals, thus giving the cities the initiative in artistic innovation over the rural monastic and pilgrimage churches that had dominated the preceding centuries.
Gothic art evolved in Northern France and spread throughout Europe, becoming the universal style from the 13th through the 16th century. Although the influence of Romanesque architecture had spread beyond France, Gothic was the first French style to dominate Europe.
In order to make these Gothic churches larger, the ribbed vault, capable of spanning large areas, was devised. Ribbed vaults were made loftier by enlarging the clerestory zone and its windows to enormous size, inserting a new zone, the triforium, below it, and supporting them on an arcade of high piers lining the nave.
To bear the greater stress of these taller, broader interiors, and to create larger window areas, a system of external supports or flying buttresses was developed.
Façades were populated with large figures of kings; portals were flanked by pillar-statues, called jamb figures, of saints, angels, and apostles; and other parts of the building were encrusted with decorative cusps, finials, and grotesque gargoyles.
Gothic sculptors took a revolutionary step beyond their Romanesque predecessors in their conception of the figures as independent, almost free-standing statues rather than as reliefs.
Gargoyles can trace their history back many thousands of years. Terra cotta waterspouts were formed in the shapes of animals such as lions and birds to serve the physical function of running the rainwater away from the walls and foundations of buildings, and the spiritual function of protecting from evil forces. Another reason for incorporating the gargoyle onto churches was to appeal to a vast Pagan population.
Gargoyles served to teach a mostly illiterate population about messages the Church was trying to convey about the afterlife. Apparently many of the artists had quite a sense of humor. Gargoyles were the only place that carvers and sculptors had any artistic license. So the carvers would often put lewd and obscene sort of figures up at the top of these spiritual places. From the columnar verticality of the jamb statues at Chartres, Gothic sculpture evolved quickly toward the sympathetic depiction of character in the figures at Reims (c.1224-45). Gothic sculpture became more sophisticated in the ensuing centuries. One of the finest 14th-century creations is the refined and mannered figure of the Virgin that stands in the south transept of Notre Dame de Paris.
The windows were enlarged, not to lighten the interiors, but rather for extensive use of stained glass, which attained the height of its development in the late 12th and 13th centuries.
RENAISSANCE: THE NORTHERN RENAISSANCE
The Italian Renaissance began to influence French art in the last decade of the 15th century, when Charles VIII returned (1496) from his conquest of Naples accompanied by several Italian artists. Italian styles first appeared in the chateaux of the Loire Valley and became predominant during the reign (1515-47) of Francis I. Initially, however, Italian decorative elements were superimposed on Gothic principles. The earliest example is the Chateau d'Amboise (c.1495), where Leonardo da Vinci spent his last years. Another famous renaissance castle is Azay-le-Rideau.
The cultural movement called the Renaissance was a rebirth of the Roman traditions of design. It was expressed in a new emphasis on rational clarity and regularity of parts, arranged in simple mathematical proportions.
Few churches were begun in this period. However, many were finished or retouched.
The cathedral of St. Gatien in Tours reflects earlier Gothic foundations with Renaissance elements increasing with height.
A huge number of chateaux were either constructed or updated in Renaissance styles. These chateaux were concentrated in the Loire Valley. This area was the seat of royal power for early modern France.
SOME RENAISSANCE CHATEAUX OF THE LOIRE VALLEY
BLOIS
CHAMBORD
CHENONCEAU
RENAISSANCE: MANNERISM
Variations on artistic styles emerged during the Renaissance in France. Three important movements were Mannerism, Baroque, and Rococo.
• Mannerist art is characterized by a complex composition, with muscular and elongated figures in complex poses. Following the High Renaissance, it is considered to be a period of technical accomplishment but also of formulaic, theatrical and overly stylized work.
• By the late 16th century, there were several anti-Mannerist attempts to reinvigorate art with greater naturalism and emotionalism. These developed into the Baroque style, which dominated the 17th century.
• Rococo originated in France in the early 18th century and is marked by elaborate ornamentation, as with a profusion of scrolls, foliage, and animal forms. It often portrayed a sense of carefree life.
Painting flourished in France during the Renaissance in France. While Italy is recognized as the origin of the Renaissance and the Italian Renaissance painters and sculptors are more well known, here is a list of the most important French artists and architects:
Jean Fouquet-early Renaissance artist, influenced both by artistic traditions in the Netherlands and in Italy.
François Clouet-Mannerist artist
Germain Pilon-Mannerist sculptor
Géorges de la Tour- French Baroque artist
André le Nôtre-Baroque landscape architect
François Boucher-French Rococo artist
Jean Fraggonard-French Rococo artist
THE LOUVRE
VERSAILLES-RENAISSANCE SIDE FACING THE PARK
HALL OF MIRRORS
FONTAINEBLEAU-A favorite residence of Napoléon
LES INVALIDES-Burial place of Napoléon
CELTIC TO ROCOCO PERIODS
LITERATURE
• Until the 12th c., most writing in France was done in Latin, or vulgar Latin.
• 12th c. – A new literary tradition developed based on tales of Christian saints and heroes as well as folk tales of the Celts which had been preserved through oral tradition until Chrétien of Troyes. The tales of King Arthur are based on this tradition. These tales were largely romantic or allegorical. Other forms emerged at this time, including animal fables and philosophic works.
• Many works of the troubadors in the south survive along with their later counterparts, the trouvères in the north. Early plays were mainly religious in nature.
• 13th c. – Prose literature emerges in vernacular French.
• François Villon-15th c. –premier French author of the middle ages in France, was a students at the Sorbonne, a murderer, and thief. His works were rediscovered only in the 19th c. He is largely referred to as a poet above all else.
• 16th c. - Renaissance France produced at least three world literary giants: François Rabelais, Pierre de Ronsard, and Michel Eyquem de Montaigne.
• Rabelais’ greatest and best-known works are Gargantua and Pantagruel.
• Ronsard was a poet and, of his love poems, the best-known appear in Sonnets pour Hélène.
• Montaigne was a master French essayist. His titles include, “Que sais-je?” – “What do I know?” and “On Friendship.”
MUSIC
• Not much evidence remains of musical forms from the Celts in France, however classical Roman church music is available during Gaul’s occupation
• 8th c. - Charlemagne's drive for uniformity standardizes chant repertory throughout empire; this repertory becomes Gregorian chant.
• 9thc. - Notation begins to develop; helps fix chant melodies.
• 11th-12th c. – Chansons de geste emerge, “songs of heroic deeds.” The Song of Roland, (La Chanson de Roland), was enormously popular and is the best-known surviving work.
• 11th-13th c. –The Troubadours appear right after the end of the Barbarian invasions. Life in the castles was becoming settled and there was a demand for new distractions. The troubadours introduced lyrical values to the non-religious world. The texts of troubadour songs deal mainly with themes of chivalry and courtly love. The tradition began in southern France, and original troubadors spoke the langue d’oc vernacular of the region, (as opposed to the langue d’oil of the north). This is the height of French influence on European music.
• 12th c. - rhythmic notation based on rhythmic modes, and rapidly rhythmic notation based on note shapes.
• 15th -16th c. - music becomes more expressive and French secular music is the most important produced at this time, since Calvinist Reformation practices limited creativity in church music .(Renaissance and Reformation)
• 17th-19th c. – France fell behind Italy and Germany in opera forms, though French harpsichord music was extensive and of high quality (Baroque/Neo-classical)
NEOCLASSICISM
Cultures have other canons of classics, however, and a recurring strain of neoclassicism appears to be a natural expression of a culture at a certain moment in its career, a culture that is highly self-aware, that is also confident of its own high mainstream tradition, but at the same time feels the need to regain something that has slipped away.
In the visual arts the European movement called "neoclassicism" was firmly established by the mid-1700’s, as a reaction against both the surviving Baroque and Rococo styles, and as a desire to return to the perceived "purity" of the arts of Rome, the more vague perception ("ideal") of Ancient Greek arts (where almost no western artist had actually been). Neoclassicism was seen throughout the western world, from the new United States to Catherine the Great’s Russia.
Contrasting with the Baroque and the Rococo, Neo-classical paintings are devoid of pastel colors and haziness; instead, they have sharp colors with chiaroscuro. In the case of Neo-classicism in France, a prime example is Jacques Louis David whose paintings often use Greek elements to extol the French Revolution's virtues (state before family).
Chiaroscuro refers to the use of the contrast between light and dark elements of a painting.
In France, the first phase of neoclassicist architecture was expressed in the "Louis XVI style", the second phase and height in the styles we call "Directoire" and Empire.
Generally, neoclassicism lasted until around 1830, however there were other periods of “revival” architecture in the late nineteenth century, such as the United States.
In 1635, Cardinal Richelieu created the Académie Française with the aim of regulating language and literary expression. The conflict between two literary tendencies--one toward greater creative freedom, which modern critics call baroque, and the other toward an acceptance of literary rules--had been virtually resolved in favor of classicism by 1660.
Neoclassical writers saw themselves, as well as their readers and characters, above all as members of society. Social institutions might be foolish or corrupt--indeed, given the intrinsic limitations of human nature, they probably were--but the individual who rebelled against custom or asserted his superiority to humankind was presented as presumptuous and absurd. While Renaissance writers were sometimes fascinated by rebels, and later Romantic artists often glorified them, neoclassical artists expected people to conform to established social norms. For individual opinion was far less likely to be true than was the consensus of society, developed over time and embodied in custom and tradition. As the rules for proper writing should be followed, so should the rules for civilized conduct in society. For example, writers did not necessarily advocate the blind following of convention, yet they insisted that good manners were important as a manifestation of self-control and consideration for others.
The classical ideals of order and moderation which inspired this period, its realistically limited aspirations, and its emphasis on the common sense of society rather than individual imagination, could all be characterized as rational. And, indeed, it is often known as the Age of Reason or the Enlightenment.
If reason, understood as harmony and balance, stamped the "splendid century," it was above all the spirit of scientific inquiry that gave to the 18th century its special character. With the decline in the authority of the French monarchy, all social and political institutions came under question and, eventually, attack. Ideas assumed sovereign power as, one by one, traditional bastions were subjected to the scrutiny of the philosophes.
Important Neoclassical Authors in France
Molière-wrote comedies which examined absurdities in society and human behavior-Tartuffe, Le Misanthrope
Corneille-wrote seriously about conflict between passion and duty-The Cid
De la Fontaine-wrote fables in a simplistic style which integrated sophisticated moral issues-Fableaux
Racine-wrote works which explored the polite veneer of society and the ferocious extremes of emotion just below the surface-Andromaque, Phaèdre
Descartes-considered the first modern philosopher, known for clarity, precision, and rationalism-Discourse on Method
Richelieu-primarily a political figure, but had a profound impact on French language and culture with the establishment of the Académie Française in 1635
Important Enlightenment Authors
Voltaire-religious and social critic, satirical writer-Candide, Zadig
Montesquieu-religious and social critic,-Les Lettres Persanes, L’esprit des lois
(Basis for U.S. Constitution) Jacques-Louis David, 1787, Death of Socrates
Accused by the Athenian government of denying the gods and corrupting the young through his teachings, Socrates (469–399 B.C.E.) was offered the choice of renouncing his beliefs or being sentenced to death by drinking hemlock. David shows him calmly discoursing on the immortality of the soul with his grief-stricken disciples.
Elisabeth Vigée-Lebrun, 1789, Self-Portrait With Daughter
With the revolution, French painting resumed its moral and political purpose. Even before 1789, popular taste had begun to turn away from the disarming, lighthearted subjects of rococo; as revolution neared, artists increasingly sought noble themes of public virtue and personal sacrifice from the history of ancient Greece or Rome. They painted with restraint and discipline, using the austere clarity of the neoclassical style to stamp their subjects with certitude and moral truth.
What is important for you to know about the Neoclassical Period is that it was a time when the social order was undergoing great change. The middle class was rising in power and prestige. The creation of new wealth through trade was challenging established hierarchies. And the idea of the "divine right of kings" (that kings were authorized to rule as God's representatives on earth) was losing its hold as the rule of kings became more precarious.
Other important events affecting the period include the Copernican Revolution in the Sixteenth Century (man learns he is not, in fact, the center of the universe, which has enormous ramifications regarding religious belief) and the Cartesian Revolution of the Seventeenth Century (Rene Descartes writes, "I think, therefore I am," which brings into question any attempt to view the world objectively and initiates a new emphasis on subjectivity.
The biggest differences between the Neoclassical assumptions about reality and those common to our age include:
1. to Neoclassical minds, natural passions aren't necessarily good; natural passions must be subordinated to social needs and strictly controlled.
2. social needs are more important to Neoclassical society than individual needs. This conflicts with our modern preoccupation with the individual--in our time, the needs of the individual tend to be considered the most important, but this wasn't true in the Neoclassical period.
3. Neoclassical thinkers believed that man could find meaning in order itself--in the order of nature, social hierarchies, government, religion, even in the order within literary forms.
The very fact that these ideas occupy writers' minds during this period indicates a strong current of thought the other way. These ideas numbered above aren't universally accepted but are, in fact, being argued and proved in the literature itself.
Rousseau-social analyst, many of his ideas concerned education and a return to nature, a forerunner of the public display of the inner self which was so popular during the romantic period which followed the Enlightenment-The Social Contract, Emile
(Rousseau is often associated with English authors Thomas Hobbes and John Locke, along with Montesquieu when sources of political thought are considered as a basis for modern western politics.)
Diderot-greatest work concerned a 35-volume philosophical work with contributions by the above authors and many more-Encyclopédie
(This was a weapon leveled against prejudice and traditional authorities, published in 35 volumes between 1751 and 1780, which incorporated most of the materialist, skeptical, and antireligious ideas of the day.)
Chenier- inspired by the harmonies of classical Greek models and by a love of liberty, became after his execution during the Terror an important influence on the early romantic school
Classical Music in France
(i.e., music during the Neo-Classical and Enlightenment periods)
As in architecture and literature, music was pattern-oriented with regular constructions and executed with control. Music lacked emotional influences and relied rather on rule-oriented conventions and mathematical precision.
Notable French Classical Composers
De Mondonville-wrote music categorized as Baroque/Rococo/and early Neoclassical
Kreutzer-famous violinist, Bach dedicated a sonata to him
Auber-early works were classical, later were romantic, wrote many operas
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