Henry VIII: Tudor Dynasty (1491–1547)

Henry VIII was King of England, and later King of Ireland, from 1509 to 1547 when he died. He is famous for having been married six times, and also held the most power of any British monarch. Notable events to occur during his reign included the establishment of the Church of England and the union of England and Wales.

Henry was not always destined to be King. His older brother Arthur was being groom to be the heir to the English throne. In fact, Henry was most likely going to become a member of the clergy, as was common for younger sons of royalty at the time.

Also was common for the time, marriages between children of royalty were based around strengthening political ties between leaders. Many times children were 2 or 3 years old when they were betrothed to another person. In England, Henry's older brother Arthur was betrothed to the daughter of the king and queen of Spain, Catherine of Aragon. Catherine and Arthur were married on November 14th, 1501 in London. Less than six months later, Arthur was dead.

Catherine was now a widow, and still young enough to be married again. The English king was interested in keeping Catherine's dowry, so 14 months after her husband's death, she was betrothed to the future Henry VIII.

The King's Great Matter
Henry VIII's rise to power was the first peaceful one England had witnessed in several years. The Tudor dynasty, however, was still young and vulnerable; its legitimacy to rule could still be tested. Henry felt that only a male heir(son) could keep the power in the Tudor family. No Queen had ever ruled England, and the English people seemed distrustful of female rulers. Although his wife Queen Catherine had been pregnant at least seven times, only one child, Princess Mary, had survived beyond infancy. When it became clear that Queen Catherine could have no more children, he began to pursue a women named Anne Boleyn. He hoped that Anne might be able to give him the son he so badly wanted.

Before he could legally marry Anne Boleyn, Henry needed the Catholic Church agree to annul (declare invalid) his marriage with Catherine. Henry's long and arduous attempt to end his marriage to Queen Catherine became known as "The King's Great Matter."

Henry VIII and the Church

When Henry VIII became king of England in 1509, he was a devout Catholic. Indeed, in 1521, Henry wrote a stinging attack on Martin Luther's complaints against the Church. In recognition of Henry's support, the pope gave him the title “Defender of the Faith.” Political needs (being able to have a male heir) however, soon tested his religious loyalty.

In 1527, Henry asked the pope to annul his marriage, but the pope turned him down. The pope did not want to offend Catherine's powerful nephew, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. The political and legal debate continued for six years. Catherine wanted to retain her position, but also that of her daughter Mary. In other words, if Henry took a new wife, neither Catherine nor Mary would ever be Queen of England.

The Reformation Parliament

Henry took steps to solve his marriage problem himself. In 1529, he called Parliament into session and asked it to pass a set of laws that ended the pope's power in England. This Parliament is known as the Reformation Parliament. Just like Martin Luther, King Henry was making a break from the Roman Catholic Church.

In 1533, Henry secretly married Anne Boleyn, who was in her twenties. Shortly after, Parliament legalized Henry's divorce from Catherine. In 1534, Henry's break with the pope was completed when Parliament voted to approve the Act of Supremacy. This called on people to take an oath recognizing the divorce and accepting Henry, not the pope, as the official head of England's Church.

A number of prominent churchmen and laymen in England were executed, thus changing Henry's legacy from one of enlightenment to one of bloody suppression. Henry was not done seeking revenge on the Catholic Church. Throughout England, small monasteries and the land they were on confiscated by Henry. By distributing some of this property among the noble class, Henry acquired the loyalty of a large and influential group.

Economy & War Under Henry VIII

One of the biggest struggles facing Henry during his reign is the depletion of the treasury. Henry inherited a prosperous economy from his father, Henry VII, and despite additional gains from seizing the property of the church, the economy was ruined by the time Elizabeth came to the throne. Part of the reason that Henry lost so much money was that he spent millions on building a navy to rival that of Spain.

One of Henry's favourite pursuits, alongside hunting and dancing, was to wage war. To ensure England would be prepared for any battle was to increase the size of its military and navy. Henry is considered by some to be one of the founders of the Royal Navy, which went from 5 to 53 ships during his reign, largely as a result of his campaigns in Europe. His wife Catherine was the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella (King and Queen of Spain). This marriage brought Henry into alliance with Spain - the rival of France, England's nearest neighbor and its traditional enemy. Early in 1512, Henry sent 10,000 troops to fight for Spain on the border with France. The expedition was a disaster. Those who didn't die from illness, returned home with nothing accomplished. To wipe out the disgrace, Henry decided to invade France in person in 1513. The English fought the French at Guinegate: the French panicked and ran away. The French war brought England no permanent benefits. Henry's allies made peace with France in 1514, and he had to follow suit. In 1518, the English agreed to hand back French lands taken after the battle. Henry's foray into France cost a great deal of money; after 1514, he left foreign policy in the hands of his advisors.

More important than successes in France was the defeat of the Scots at the Battle of Flodden - 9th September 1513. The Scots took advantage of Henry's absence in France to invade with over 20,000 men. The English were outnumbered, but better equipped and led. The Scots were completely defeated, suffering about ten thousand casualties - the dead included twelve earls and two bishops, and, above all, James IV himself. The English commander, the Earl of Surrey was rewarded with the restoration of his father's title - Duke of Norfolk.

The Rest of Kings Wives:

Henry married Anne and crowned her Queen of England. Anne promised Henry many sons, but failed in her mission. She did give birth to a daughter, Elizabeth, who would one day turn out to be one of the greatest monarchs the world had ever known. After several failed pregnancies, including the stillbirth of a son, Henry decided to get rid of Anne. Henry felt that he was no better off than he had been with Catherine, and at such a cost. Anne's failure to bear a son was the final straw.

Not long after Anne became Queen, Henry fell in love with a court lady-in-waiting named Jane Seymour. Henry soon decided he wanted to remove Anne and marry Jane, and continue his quest to produce a son.

After all the country had gone through so that Henry could marry Anne Boleyn, he couldn't simply divorce her and marry Jane. He asked his advisors to help him end the marriage without it reflecting badly on him. The solution was to accuse Anne of crimes so outrageous that she could be charged with treason and put to death. Anne was arrested on the false charge of plotting against the King's life, and of making Henry fall in love with her via witchcraft. A jury of Henry's supporters found Anne guilty of all charges, and she executed.

A few weeks after Anne Boleyn's death, Henry married Jane Seymour. She gave birth to Henry's long-awaited son Edward after one year of marriage. Henry was thrilled beyond belief. Unfortunately, that was not to be. Jane died shortly of childbed fever shortly after Edward's birth. Henry married three more times. None of these marriages, however, produced children.

Queen Elizabeth (1533 - 1603)

The reign of Queen Elizabeth I is often referred to as The Golden Age of English history. Elizabeth was an immensely popular Queen, and her popularity has waned little with the passing of four hundred years. She is still one of the best loved monarchs, and one of the most admired rulers of all time. She became a legend in her own lifetime, famed for her remarkable abilities and achievements

Early Years

Elizabeth was the daughter of King Henry VIII and his second wife, Anne Boleyn. She was born on 7 September 1533 at Greenwich Palace. Her birth was possibly the greatest disappointment of her father's life. He had wanted a son and heir to succeed him as he already had a daughter, Mary, by his first wife, Catherine of Aragon. He had not divorced Catherine, and changed the religion of the country in the process, to have only another daughter. In 1536 Anne's marriage to the King was declared null and void, and Elizabeth was declared illegitimate and deprived of her chance to become Queen of England.

Queen Elizabeth

After Henry's death in 1547, each of his three children ruled England in turn. This created religious turmoil. Henry's son, Edward, became king when he was just nine years old. Too young to rule alone, Edward VI was guided by adult advisers. These men were devout Protestants, and they introduced Protestant reforms to the English Church. Almost constantly in ill health, Edward reigned for just six years. Mary, the daughter of Catherine of Aragon, took the throne in 1553. She was a Catholic who returned the English Church to the rule of the pope. Her efforts met with considerable resistance, and she had many Protestants executed. When Mary died in 1558, Elizabeth, Anne Boleyn's daughter, inherited the throne.

Elizabeth I was determined to return her kingdom to Protestantism. In 1559, Parliament followed Elizabeth's wishes and set up the Church of England, or Anglican Church, with Elizabeth as its head. This was to be the only legal church in England.To please Protestants, priests in the Church of England were allowed to marry. They could deliver sermons in English, not Latin. To please Catholics, the Church of England kept some of the trappings of the Catholic service such as rich robes. In addition, church services were revised to be somewhat more acceptable to Catholics.

Elizabeth vs. Spain In the 1500s there was an ongoing rivalry on the sea between the ships of England and Spain over control of trade in the New World. King Philip II of Spain decided to settle the question and put an end to English attacks on his ships by invading and conquering England. Philip assembled a huge fleet of warships known as the Spanish Armada and in 1588 sailed into the English Channel.

On Monday, July 29, the two fleets met in battle. The English emerged victorious, although the Spanish losses were not great; only three ships were reported sunk, one captured, and four more ran aground. In England the victory was greeted as a sign of approval from God for the Protestant cause. The storms that scattered the Spanish ships were seen as intervention by God. Services of thanks were held throughout England, and a commemorative medal struck, with the words, "God blew and they were scattered" inscribed on it.

Accomplishments of Queen Elizabeth I

Her reign witnessed widespread increase in literacy and great achievements in the arts -

great poets and playwrights emerged during her era such as William Shakespeare.

She established Protestantism as the country's religion

Queen Elizabeth achieved recognition for England as a leading power in Europe

Queen Elizabeth established the Poor Laws - she achieved a new framework of support for the need.

The reign of Queen Elizabeth I also saw significant expansion overseas, specifically the Americas and the Caribbean.