| A | B |
|---|
| Learning | A relatively permanent change in behavior (or behavioral potential) due to experience |
| Behaviorism | An approach to psychology that emphasizes the study of observable behavior and the role of the environment as a determinant of behavior |
| Conditioning | A basic kind of learning that involves associations between environmental stimuli and the organism's responses |
| Unconditioned stimulus (US) | The classical-conditioning term for a stimulus that elicits a reflexive response in the absence of learning |
| Unconditioned response (UR) | The classical-conditioning term for a reflexive response elicited by a stimulus in the absence of learning |
| Conditioned stimulus (CS) | The classical-conditioning term for an initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response after being associated with an unconditioned stimulus |
| Conditioned response (CR) | The classical-conditioning term for a response that is elicited by a conditioned stimulus; occurs after the conditioned stimulus is associated with an unconditioned stimulus |
| Classical conditioning | The process by which a previously neutral stimulus acquires the capacity to elicit a response through association with a stimulus that already elicits a similar or related response |
| Extinction | The weakening and eventual disappearance of a learned response; in classical conditioning, it occurs when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus |
| Spontaneous recovery | The reappearance of a learned response after its apparent extinction |
| Higher-order conditioning | In classical conditioning, a procedure in which a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus through association with analready established conditioned stimulus |
| Stimulus generalization | After conditioning, the tendency to respond to a stimulus that resembles one involved in the original conditioning; in classical conditioning, it occurs when a stimulus that resembles the conditioned stimulus elicits the conditioned response |
| Stimulus discrimination | The tendency to respond differently to two or more similar stimuli; in classical conditioning, it occurs when a stimulus similar to the CS fails to evoke the CR |
| Counterconditioning | In classical conditioning, the process of pairing a conditioned stimulus with a stimulus that elicits a response that is incompatible with an unwanted conditioned response |
| Operant conditioning | The process by which a response becomes more likely to occur or less so, depending on its consequences |
| Reinforcement | The process by which a stimulus or event strengthens or increases the probability of the response that it follows |
| Punishment | The process by which a stimulus or event weakens or reduces the probability of the response that it follows |
| Instinctive drift | The tendency of an organism to revert to an instinctive behavior over time; it can interfere with learning |
| Positive reinforcement | A reinforcement procedure in which a response is followed by the presentation of, or increase in intensity of, a reinforcing stimulus; as a result, the response becomes stronger or more likely to occur |
| Negative reinforcement | A reinforcement procedure in which a response is followed by the removal, delay, or decrease in intensity of an unpleasant stimulus, as a result, the response becomes stronger or more likely to occur |
| Primary reinforcer | A stimulus that is inherently reinforcing, typically satisfying a physiological need; an example is food |
| Primary punisher | A stimulus that is inherently punishing; an example is an electric shock |
| Secondary reinforcer | A stimulus that has acquired reinforcing properties through association with other reinforcers |
| Secondary punisher | A stimulus that has acquired punishing properties through association with other punishers |
| Extinction | The weakening and eventual disappearance of a learned response; in operant conditioning, it occurs when a response is no longer followed by a reinforcer |
| Stimulus generalization | In operant conditioning, the tendency for a response that has been reinforced (or punished) in the presence of one stimulus to occur (or be suppressed) in the presence of another, similar, stimulus |
| Stimulus discrimination | In operant conditioning, the tendency of a response to occur in the presence of one stimulus but not in the presence of other, similar, stimuli that differ from it in some dimension |
| Discriminative stimulus | A stimulus that signals when a particular response is likely to be followed by a certain type of consequence |
| Stimulus control | Control over the occurrence of a response by a discriminative stimulus |
| Continuous reinforcement | A reinforcement schedule in which a particular response is always reinforced |
| Intermittent (partial) schedule of reinforcement | A reinforcement schedule in which a particular response is sometimes but not always reinforced |
| Fixed-ratio (FR) schedule | An intermittent schedule of reinforcement in which reinforcement occurs only after a fixed number of responses |
| Variable ratio (VR) schedule | An intermittent schedule of reinforcement in which reinforcement occurs after a variable number of responses |
| Fixed-interval (FI) schedule | An intermittent schedule of reinforcement in which a reinforcer is delivered for the first response made after a fixed period of time has elapsed since the last reinforcer |
| Variable interval (VI) schedule | An intermittent schedule of reinforcement in which a reinforcer is delivered for a response made after a variable period of time has elapsed since the last reinforcer |
| Shaping | An operant-conditioning procedure in which successive approximations of a desired response are reinforced; used when the desired response has a low probability of occurring spontaneously |
| Behavior modification | The application of conditioning techniques to teach new responses or to reduce or eliminate maladaptive or problematic behavior |
| Token economy | A behavior-modification technique in which secondary reinforcers called tokens, which can be collected and exchanged for primary or other secondary reinforcers, are used to shape behavior |
| Extrinsic reinforcers | Reinforcers that are not inherently related to the activity being reinforced, such as money, prizes and praise |
| Intrinsic reinforcers | Reinforcers that are inherently related to the activity being reinforced, such as enjoyment of the task and the satisfaction of accomplishment |
| Social-learning theories | Theories that emphasize how behavior is learned and maintained through observation and imitation of others, positive consequences, and cognitive processes such as plans, expectations and motivting beliefs |
| Observational learning | A process in which an individual learns new responses by observing the behavior of another (a model) rather than through direct experience |
| Latent learning | A form of learning that is not immediately expressed in an overt response; it occurs without obvious reinforcement |
| Cognitive map | A mental representation of the environment |
| Insight | A form of problem solving that appears to involve the (often sudden) understanding of how elements of a situation are related or can be reorganized to achieve a solution |
