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| Why did so many people visit Chicago in 1893 and what did it host? | Hosted the World's Columbian Exposition= Many traveled to the White City (=nickname for Chicago's fairgrounds and shining buildings)= Wanted to see the progress of American civilization represented by new industrial technologies and by the architects' grand visions of an ideal urban environment |
| Describe the layout of Chicago | Central= Business district, which had modern urban structures (consisting of steel-framed skyscrapers, stores, etc.)=Was surrounded by workers' homes (near the city's factories and warehouses)= Outside that were tree-lined suburban retreats for the wealthier class= [Everything was connected by transportation networks] |
| What were the problems with Chicago? | There was pollution, poverty, crime, and vice= There was a confusion of tongue/language (since there were many immigrants)= 3/4 of the population was foreign-born |
| How much did the U.S. population increase in the later part of the 19th century and why? | Increased 3 fold= Large part was due to the large number of immigrants |
| What were the negative forces that drove Europeans to emigrate in the late 19th century? | Poverty of displaced farm-workers driven from the land by the mechanization of farm-work= Overcrowding and joblessness in European cities due to a population boom= Religious persecution (EX: Jews in Russia) |
| What were the positive forces that drove Europeans to emigrate in the late 19th century? | U.S. had a reputation for political and religious freedom, economic opportunities (from settling on the Great Plains), and an abundance of industrial jobs in cities= The introduction of large steamships and the relative cheapness for travel made it possible for many Europeans to emigrate |
| Describe the "Old" Immigrants | Majority came from northern and western Europe= Majority were Protestants (while the minority as Irish and German Catholics)= Their language (mostly English-speaking) and high level of literacy and occupational skills made it easy for them to blend into the mostly rural 19th century American society |
| Describe the "New" Immigrants | Majority came from southern and eastern Europe= Many were poor and illiterate peasants (who had left autocratic countries and were thus unaccustomed to democratic traditions)= Majority were Roman Catholic, Greek Orthodox, Russian Orthodox, and Jewish= On arrival, the majority crowded into poor ethnic neighborhoods= 25% of them were "Birds of Passage" (=young men contracted for unskilled factory, mining, and construction jobs, who would return to their native lands when they saved enough money to bring back to their families) |
| What were some immigration laws that were passed to restrict immigration? | Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 (=Placed a ban on all new immigrants from China), restrictions on the immigration of undesirable persons (those convicted of criminal acts or diagnosed as mentally incompetent), and a law in 1885 that prohibited contract labor in order to protect American workers |
| Who supported the efforts to restrict immigration? | Labor unions (feared that employers would use immigration to depress wages and break strikes), the American Protective Association (=was a nativist society that was openly prejudiced against Roman Catholics), and Social Darwinists (viewed the new immigrants as biologically inferior to English and Germanic stocks |
| What were the results of the attempt to restrict immigration? | (During a depression in the 1890s, foreigners became a convenient scapegoat for jobless workers as well as for employers who blamed strikes and the labor movement on foreign agitators)= However, the anti-immigrant feelings did NOT stop immigration (15% of the U.S. population were immigrants) |
| Explain how urbanization and industrialization developed at the same time | Cities provided both a central supply of labor for factories and also a principal market for factory-made goods |
| Describe the movement of people from rural areas into cities | By 1900, 40% of Americans lived in towns or cities and by 1920, more Americans lived in urban communities than in rural areas= Southern African Americans also moved/settled in northern and western cities |
| Describe how improvements in urban transportation made the growth of cities possible | Walking Cities (of the pre-Civil War era)= people had to live within walking distance of their shops or jobs= These cities gave way to Streetcar Cities |
| Streetcar Cities | Where people lived in residences many miles from their jobs and commuted to work on horse-drawn steetcars= These street/cable cars were later replaced by electric trolleys, elevated railroads, and subways, which could transport people to urban residences even farther from the city's commercial center= The building of big steel suspension bridges (EX: Brooklyn Bridge) also made possible longer commutes between residential neighborhoods and the center city |
| What was the result of mass transportation? | It segregated urban workers by income= The upper and middle classes moved to streetcar suburbs to escape the pollution, poverty, and crime of the city (the hgiher-income residents left older sections of the city to the working poor who were mostly immigrants) |
| Why did people start building skyscrapers and how were skyscrapers made possible? | Since increasing land values in the central business district dictated the construction of taller and taller buildings (EX: William Le Baron Jenny, in 1885, built the 10 story Home Insurance Company Building in Chicago which was the 1st true skyscraper with a steel skeleton)= They were made possible by innovations like the Otis elevator and the central steam-heating system with radiators in every room= By 1900, skyscrapers were the dominant feature of American cities (replacing church spires) |
| Describe the housing/living conditions in the cities' business districts? | As the rich citizens deserted residences near the business district, the poor moved into them= To increase their profits, landlords divided up inner-city housing into small, windowless rooms= The resulting slums and tenement apartments could ram many people into 1 city block |
| How did New York City attempt to fix the terrible living conditions in the city and what was the result? | It passed a law in 1879 that required each bedroom to have a window= The cheapest way for landlords to respond to the law was to build the so-called Dumbbell Tenements (=with ventilation shafts in the center of the building to provide windows for each room)= However, overcrowding and filth in new tenements continued to promote the spread of deadly diseases (like cholera, typhoid, and tuberculosis) |
| What was the result of the crowded tenement quarters? | Different immigrant groups created distinct ethnic neighborhoods where each group could maintain its own language, culture, ,church or temple, and social club= Many groups supported their own newspapers and schools= While often crowded, unhealthy, and crime ridden, these Ghettos (=neighborhoods) often served as springboards for ambitious and hardworking immigrants and their children to achieve their version of the American dream |
| Explain how and why the U.S. residential patterns were/are different from Europes | In Europe, the wealthiest people live near the business districts of modern cities while lower-income people live in the outlying areas= There is a difference because in the 19th century, upper and middle-class Americans decided that the best way to escape the problems of the city was to move out to the suburbs= The factors that caused suburban growth included abundant land available at low cost, inexpensive transportation by rail, low-cost construction methods such as the wooden, ballon-frame house, ethnic and racial prejudice, and an American fondness for grass, privacy, and detached individual houses |
| Frederick Law Olmsted | Designed a suburban community with graceful curved roads and open spaces ("a village in the park")= By 1900, suburbs grew up around every major U.S. city and a single-family dwelling surrounded by lawn became the American ideal of comfortable living |
| What was the result of city residents trying to carry on life in large cities like they did in small villages? | They did not expect a lot of public services from municipal governments, and as a result, American cities could not deal effectively with the build-up of waste, pollution, disease, crime, and other hazards= Only slowly did advocates for healthier and more beautiful cities convince citizens and city governments of the need for water purification, sewerage systems, waste disposal, etc. to regulate urban development |
| Political Machine | Political parties in major cities that were under control of tightly organized groups of politicians= Each machine had its Boss (the top politician who gave orders to the rank and file and doled out government jobs to loyal supporters)= Many machines (EX: Tammany Hall) started as social clubs and later developed into power centers to coordinate the needs of businesses, immigrants, and the underprivileged (they, in turn, asked for people's votes on election day) |
| How were Political Machine party bosses successful? | They knew how to manage the competing social, ethnic, and economic groups in the city= The political machines that they ran brought modern services to the city (including a form of welfare for urban newcomers)= The political organization would find jobs and apartments for recently arrived immigrants and show up at a poor family's door with baskets of food during hard times |
| In what way were Political Machines greedy? | They stole millions from the taxpayers in the form of graft and fraud (EX: 65% of public building funds ended up in the pockets of Boss Tweed and his cronies in New York City in the 1860s) |
| Henry George | Published (in 1879) "Progress and Poverty" which became a best-seller and caused readers to llok more critically at the effects of laissez-faire economics= The book proposed placing a single tax on land as the solution to poverty= George also called attention to the alarming inequalities in wealth caused by industrialization |
| Edward Bellamy | Published (in 1888) "Looking Backward, 2000-1887"= It envisioned a future era where a cooperative society had eliminated poverty, greed, and crime |
| What were the results of George's and Bellamy's books? | So many readers like their books that they joined different reform movements and organizations to try to implement the authors' ideas= Both books encouraged a shift in American public opinion away from pure laissez-faire and toward greater government regulation |
| How did people try to improve the conditions of immigrant neighborhoods? | Many young, idealistic, and well-educated women and men of the middle class settled into immigrant neighborhoods to learn about the problems of immigrant families at first hand= Living and working in Settlement Houses, the young reformers hoped to relieve the effects of poverty by providing social services for people in the neighborhoods |
| Hull House in Chicago | (Experiment started by Jane Addams and a college slassmate in 1889) Was an attempt to improve the immigrant neighborhoods |
| Why were Settlement Houses so important? | They taught English to immigrants, pioneered early-childhood education, taught industrial arts, and established neighborhood theaters and music schools |
| Describe Settlement workers and why were they important? | They were civic-minded volunteers whose work provided the foundation for the professional social worker= They were also political activists who crusaded for child-labor laws, housing reform, and women's rights (EX: Frances Perkins and Harry Hopkins, 2 settlement workers, went on to leadership roles in Roosevelt's reform program, the New Deal) |
| Social Gospel | When Protestant clergymen preached the cause of social justice for the poor/urban poor (in the 1880s and 1890s)= They preached the importance of applying Christian principles to social problems |
| Walter Rauschenbusch | (Lead the Social Gospel movement)= Wrote many books urging organized religions to take up the cause of social justice= His Social Gospel preaching linked Christianity with the Progressive reform movement and encouraged many middle-class Protestants to attack urban problems |
| How were religions affected by the challenges of modern urban living? | Roman Catholics gained many followers from the influx of new immigrants= Catholic leaders (EX: Cardinal James Gibbons) inspired the devoted support of old and new immigrants by defending the Knights of Labor and the cause of organized labor |
| Moody Bible Institute | (Founded by Dwight Moody who was a Protestant) Helped generations of urban evangelists to adapt traditional Christianity to city life |
| Salvation Army | Provided the basic necessities of life for the homeless and the poor, while also preaching the Christian gospel |
| Mary Baker Eddy | Religious man whose messages attracted members of the urban middle class= He taught that good health was the result of correct thinking about "Father Mother God"= Many joined her church, the Church of Christ, Science (a.k.a. Christian Science) |
| How did urban life hurt the family? | It put strains on parents and their children by isolating them from the extended family (relatives beyond the family nucleus of parents and children) and village support= Divorce rates increased to 1 in 12 marriages by 1900 (because many state laws had expanded the grounds for divorce to include cruelty and desertion)= The shift from rural to urban living shrunk the family size (Children were an economic asset on the farm, where labor was needed, but in the city, they were more of an economic liability= This resulted in a drop in the national average for birthrates and family size) |
| Describe women's suffrage | Was launched at Seneca Falls in 1848 and was carried out by many middle-class women |
| National American Women's Suffrage Association | (Founded in 189- by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony) Was to secure the vote for women (Wyoming was the 1st to grant full suffrage to women in 1869= Some states allowed women to vote in local elections and most allowed women to own and control property after marriage) |
| Who supported the temperance movement and why? | Women supported the movement because they were convinced that excessive drinking of alcohol by male factory workers was a main cause of poverty for immigrant and working-class families |
| Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) | (Made in 1874) Called for total abstinence from alcohol and was lead by Frances E. Willard |
| The Antisaloon League | (Made in 1893) By 1916, it had persuaded 21 states to close down all saloons and bars |
| What was the result of the temperance movement? | Carry A. Nation caused a scene by raiding saloons and smashing barrels of beer with a hatchet |
| Society for the Suppression of Vice | Was made by Anthony Comstock due to the moralists' view of cities as a breeding ground for vice, obscenity, and prostitution= Was to be a watchdog of American morals= It persuaded Congress to pass the Comstock Law (=prohibited the mailing or transportation of obscene and lewd material and photographs) |
| Describe the public schools of 1865 and describe how they were reformed | They taught the 3 R's (reading, writing, arithmetic) and the traditional values promoted in the standard texts, McGuffey's readers= New laws dramatically increased the number of children enrolled in public schools (which caused the literacy rate to rice to 90% of the population by 1900)= The practice of sending children to kindergarten (concept borrowed from Germany) became popular and reflected the growing interest in early-childhood education in the U.S. |
| How was the schooling system helped by tax-support? | At first, the schools followed the college preparatory curriculum of private academies, but soon the public high schools became more comprehensive and began to emphasize vocational and citizenship education |
| Why did the number of U.S. colleges increase in the late 18000s | Because of land grant colleges established under the Morrill acts of 1862 and 1890, universities founded by wealthy philanthropists (EX: University of Chicago by John D. Rockefeller), and the founding of new colleges for women (EX: Smith, Bryn Mawr, and Mount Holyoke)= By 1900, 71% of the colleges admitted women, who represented 1/3 of the attending students |
| In what way did the college curriculum change? | Charles W. Eliot (after becoming president of Harvard in 1869) reduced the number of required courses and introduced electives (courses chosen by students) to accommodate the teaching of modern languages and the sciences: physics, chemistry, biology, and geology (EX: John John Hopkins University was founded as the 1st American institution to specialized in advanced graduate studies= it emphasized research and free inquiry) |
| What were the results of the innovations in education? | The U.S. produced its 1st generation of scholars who could comete with the intellectual achievements of Europeans |
| What revolutionized the social sciences in the late 19th century and in what way? | The use of the scientific method and teh theory of evolution to human affairs revolutionized the social sciences- The new social sciences included behavioral psychology, sociology, anthropology, and political science |
| Richard T. Ely | (From John Hopkins) Attacked laissez-faire economic thought as dogmatic and outdated and used economics to study labor unions, trusts, and other existing economic institution not only to understand them but to suggest solutions for economic problems (was influenced by the scientific theory) |
| Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. | Taught that the law should evolve with the times in response to changing needs and not remain restricted by legal precedents and judicial decisions of the past (was influenced by the scientific theory) |
| Clarence Darrow | (Famous lawyer) Argued that criminal behavior could be caused by a person's enviornment of poverty, neglect, and abuse (was influenced by the scientific theory) |
| W. E. B. Du Bois | Was the 1st African American to receive a doctorate from Harvard= He used the new statistical methods of sociology to stud crime in an urban neighborhood= As an activist, he called for full equal rights for blacks, integrated schools, and equal access to higher education for the "talented tenth" of African American youth |
| Describe literature after the Civil War | Many popular works of literature were romantic novels that depicted ideal heros and heroines |
| Bret Harte | (Was a realist author) Was a regionalist and was the 1st writer to break the romantic novel/genteel literary tradition= He depicted life in the rough mining camps of the West |
| Mark Twain | (Was a realist author) Was the pen name for Samuel L. Clemens= Was the first great realist author= He wrote "The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn" (1884) which revealed the greed, violence, and racism in American society |
| William Dean Howells | (Was a realist author) Considered the problems of industrialization and unequal wealth in the novels "The rise of Silas Lapham" (1885) and "A Hazard of New Fortunes (1890) |
| What were the authors, that emerged in the 1890s, like? | They became known for their naturalism which described how emotions and experience shaped human experience |
| Stephen Crane | Wrote "Maggie: A Girl of the Streets" (1893) which told how a brutal urban enviornment could destroy the lives of young people= He also wrote "Red Badge of Courage" which was about fear and human nature on the Civil War battlefield |
| Jack London | Was a young California writer and adventurer who portrayed the conflict between nature and civilization in novels like "The Call of the Wild" (1903) |
| Theodore Dreiser | Wrote "Sister Carrie" (1990) which caused a sensation and shocked the moral sensibilities of the time= Was about a poor working girl in Chicago |
| Winslow Homer | American painter of seascapes and watercolors= He often rendered scenes of nature in a matter-of-fact way |
| Thomas Eakins | American painter who specialized in painting the everyday lives of working-class men and women and used the new technology of serial-action photographs to study human anatomy and paint it more realistically |
| James McNeill Whistler | Became an American expatriate when he sailed to Europe and then lived in Paris and London= He painted "Arrangement in Grey and Black" (known as "Whistler's Mother")= It was a study of color, rather than subject matter, and influenced the development of modern art |
| Mary Cassatt | Was a distinguished portrait painter who also spent much of her life in France where she learned the techniques of impressionism (especially in her use of pastel colors) |
| Ashcan School | Was a group of social realists who (near the end of the 19th century) painted scenes of everyday life in poor urban neighborhoods |
| Why was the Armory Show in New York City (in 1913) important? | The art was upsetting to realists and romanticists because the paintings were abstract and nonrepresentational= This kind of Art was rejected until the 1950s |
| Henry Hobson Richardson | Changed the direction of American architecture= His designs, based on the Romanesque style of massive stone walls and rounded arches, gave a gravity and stateliness to functional commercial buildings |
| Louis Sullivan | Was an architect who went even further than Richardson by rejecting historic styes in his quest for a suitable style for the tall, steel-framed office buildings of the 1880s and 1890s= His buildings achieved aesthetic unity (where the form of a building flowed from its function) |
| Frank Lloyd Wright | (Was an employe of Sullivan) Was an architect who developed an organic style of architecture that was in harmony with its natural surroundings (his vision is seen in his prarie houses)= He became the most famous American architect of the 20th century |
| Frederick Law Olmsted | Specialized in the planning of city parks and scenic boulevards (including Central Park in New York City and the grounds of the U.S. Capitol in Washington)= He was the creator of landscape architecture who not only designed parks, parkways, campuses, and suburbs, but also established the basis for all later efforts at urban landscaping |
| Describe the position of music in the cities | Most large cities had either a symphony orchestra and or an opera house= Smaller towns had outdoor bandstands that were the setting for the playing of popular marches by John Philip Sousa |
| Who were the most important people in the advancement of music? | African American musicians in New Orleans |
| Jelly Roll Morton and Buddy Bolden | Created Jazz (=a form of music that combined African rhythms with western-style instruments and mixed improvisation with a structured band format) |
| Scott Joplin | Was a black composer who sold many copies of his "Maple Leaf Rag" (1899) |
| Blues Music | Came from the South and expressed the pain of the black experience |
| Joseph Pulitzer | Owned the newspaper "World" which was the first newspaper to exceed a million in circulation= He achieved this success by filling his daily paper with both sensational stories of crimes and disasters and crusading feature stories about political and economic corruption (thus appealed to urban masses' desires for information and amusement) |
| What were the results of advertising revenues and new printing technologies? | They made it possible for the "Ladies' Home Journal" and other popular magazines to sell for as little as 10c a copy |
| What things caused the growth of leisure-time activities? | A gradual reduction in the hours people worked, improved transportation, promotional billboards and advertising, and the decline of restrictive Puritan and Victorian values that discouraged "wasting" time on play |
| How did people spend their leisure time? | The most popular form was drinking and talking at the corner saloon= Theaters for the performance of comedies and dramas decreased in most large cities but vaudeville with its variety of acts had more appeal for the urban masses= The circus became the "Greatest Show on Earth" through the showmanship of Phineas T. Barnum and James A. Bailiey= The Wild West show brought to urban audiences by William F. Cody ("Buffalo Bill") was very popular= Commuters promoted weekend recreation in order to keep their cars running on Sundays and holidays (and they created parks in the countryside near the end of the line for urban families to enjoy) |
| John L. Sullivan | Was the most famous athlete of the era who was the heavyweight boxer |
| Describe boxing | It attracted mainly male spectators from both the upper and lower classes to cheer and wager on their favorite fighter (took a long time to win middle-class respectability) |
| Describe baseball | (Was originally a rural game) President William Howard Taft started the tradition of throwing out the 1st ball of the season |
| Describe basketball | Was invented in 1891 at Springfield College (spread across the nation quickly)= The 1st professional league was organized in 1898 |
| Describe football | Remained a college sport for decades and did not become a commercial enterprise of professional league teams until the 1920s (took a long time to win middle-class respectability) |
| Describe the American spectator sports | Were played and attended by men= They were appart of the Bachelor Subculture for single men in their twenties and thirties whose lives centered around saloons, horse races, and pool halls |
| How did women participate in sports? | They were considered unfit for most competitive sports but they still participated in croquet and bicycling (and other recreational sports) |
| What sports, and in what way, were discriminatory towards people? | Participation in golf and tennis was limited to members of athletic clubs (which kept out most of the working class)= The rich could separate themselves from lower-income people by pursuing the expensive sports of polo and yachting= Jews and Catholics were kept out of some private clubs but Blacks were discriminated against the most (by the Jim Crow laws) from joining whites-only clubs and from playing on all-white big-league baseball teams, until the 1940s |
