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| Public Opinion | Denotes the values and attitudes that people have about issues, events, and personalities |
| Values | (a.k.a. Beliefs) Made up of a person's basic orientation to politics= Values represent deep-rooted goals, aspirations, and ideals that shape an individual's perceptions of political issues and events |
| What are the basic political values most Americans hold? | Liberty, equality, democracy |
| Political Ideology | Refers to a complex and interrelated set of beliefs and values that, as a whole, form a general philosophy about government (EX: Liberalism and Conservatism) |
| Attitude | (a.k.a. Opinion) A specific view about a particular issue, personality, or event= Attitudes/opinions may have emerged from a broad belief, but an attitude itself is very specific (and sometimes short lived)= Shaped by their underlying political beliefs and values |
| Why does public policy and public opinion not always coincide? | Because we have a representative government (not a direct democracy) |
| Why did the framers of the Constitution want a representative government? | Thought nation would be best served if it allowed elected representatives of the people an opportunity to reflect/consider their decisions rather than by a government that bowed immediately to shifts in popular sentiment |
| Populist Movement | Said that government was to far removed from the people= Introduced the initiative and the referendum |
| Initiative and the Referendum | Procedures that allow for direct popular legislation |
| Opinions | Are products of an individual's personality, social characteristics, and interests= Mirror who a person is= Are shaped by institutional, political, and governmental forces |
| Equality of Opportunity | Assume that all individuals should be allowed to seek personal and material success= Such success should be linked to personal effort and ability rather than family connections or other forms of special privilege |
| Individual Freedom | Government interference with individuals' lives and property should be kept to the minimum constituent with the general welfare (although has been grown accustomed to) |
| Democracy | Idea that everyone should have the opportunity to take part in the nation's governmental and policy-making processes and have some say in determining how they are governed |
| Supporting Principles | People still make decisions that are contrary to their support/belief in principles= Widespread acceptance of principles set a standard that is hard to dispute/change |
| Agreement on Fundamental Political Values: Reason | Although not absolute, is probably more widespread in US than anywhere else in the Western world= CAUSE: US was never socially or economically homogeneous, US never had a feudal aristocracy (which dominated European history), no socialist movements comparable to those that developed in 19th century Europe were ever able to establish themselves in US (results including America's prosperity and early availability of political rights)= Nevertheless, principles supported by Americans have not always been put into practice |
| Result of America's lack of a feudal aristocracy and socialist movement | No aristocracy ever existed in US to asset the virtues of inequality, special privilege, and a rigid class structure nor a powerful communist or socialist party to seriously challenge the desirability of limited government and individualism |
| Result of fundamental commitment to equality of opportunity | Led to divisions over racial policy= Both proponents and opponents of affirmative action progams cite their belief in equality of opportunity as the justification for their position |
| Proponents of Affirmative Action Programs | See programs as necessary to ensure equality of opportunity |
| Opponents of Affirmative Action Programs | Believe that affirmative action constitutes preferential treatment for some groups (a clear violation of the principle of equality of opportunity) |
| Americans against government intervention in economy/society would probably be predisposed to dislike... | The development of anew healthcare and social programs |
| Americans who distrust the military would probably be predisposed to... | Be suspicious of any call for the use of American troops |
| Political Socialization | Process through which underlying political beliefs and values are formed (considered collectively) |
| If citizens did not share some fundamental beliefs... | Probably no nation and certainly no democracy could survive= If Americans had few common values or perspectives, agreement would be hard to get |
| 4 Agents of Socialization | (Things that cause differences in political perspectives) family, membership in social groups, education, prevailing political conditions (do not fully explain a person's political outlook) |
| The Family | Initial orientation to politics obtained from family= Although few parents spend much time teaching their kids about politics, political conversations occur and children thus absorb political views of their parents (without realizing it)= Party preferences are initially acquired at home |
| Social Groups | Include those to which individuals belong involuntarily (i.e. gender and racial groups) as well as those to which people belong voluntarily (i.e. political parties, labor unions, religions, etc.)= Some social groups have both voluntary and involuntary attributes (EX: people born with particular class background but due to their efforts, may move up/down the class structure) |
| How can membership in social groups affect political values? | Membership can give individuals important experiences and perspectives that shape their views of political and social life |
| Black and White People | Differ on issues due to their difference in experience, background, and interests |
| Pew Research Center: Survey (Blacks and Whites) | WHITE: 62% want government to do more to guarantee food and shelter and 55% want the government to generally help the needy= BLACKS: 80% support guarantee of food and shelter and 72% support the provision of help for the needy |
| Pew Research Center: Survey (Latinos and Hispanics on Education) | LATINOS: 54% viewed education as the most important issue facing America= In general population, however, 5% of those surveyed attached such importance to education= HISPANICS: most view education as ticket for better life |
| Pew Research Center: Survey (Latinos and immigration) | LATINOS: More than 60% believe that immigration is good for America= NON-LATINOS: 60% see immigration as posing a great danger |
| Latinos | Divided into subgroups based on national origin (EX: Latinos of Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Central American)= Each have different opinions= Differences are related to each group's level of education, economic status, and history |
| Cuban Americans | Tend to be Republican and conservative= Typically more wealthy and better educated than other Latinos and have traditionally viewed viewed the Republican party as an enemy of the Communist party |
| Puerto Rican Americans | Tend to be liberal and Democratic= Tend to be poorer and depend more on the social services championed by the Democratic Party |
| Religion | Become another important source of variation in opinion (religious and moral issues have been placed on the national political agenda) |
| Republican Views | Emphasized support for traditional "family values", opposition to abortion, same-sex marriage, and other practices opposed by religious leaders |
| Evangelical Protestants | Are most supportive of traditional values |
| Respondents to the increase importance of religion | (Opposite of Evangelical Protestants) Call themselves "secular" meaning that they least support the traditional values |
| Women vs. Men | Women tend to be less militaristic than men on issues of war and peace, more likely than men to favor measures to protect the environment, and more supportive than men of government social and health-care programs= Women are more likely to support the Democrats while men support the GOP |
| Gender Gap | Tendency for men's and women's opinions to differ |
| What has the gender gap vanished over? | Abortion issue |
| Pew Research Center: Survey (Men and Women on Abortion) | Men and women are nearly identical (52% vs. 52%) on the issue of allowing abortion in general or on a limited basis, and 46% of both men and women believe abortion should always or almost always be illegal |
| Political Party Membership | Can affect political orientation |
| Partisans | Rely on party leaders and spokespersons for cues on the appropriate postion to take on major political issues |
| Result of Congressional Redistricting and Partisan Realignment in the South | Reduced the number of conservative Democrats and all but eliminated liberal Republicans from Congress and positions of prominence in the party= RESULT: Leadership of the Republican party has become increasingly conservative and that of the Democratic party has become more and more liberal= Changes in the positions of party leaders have been reflected in the views of party adherents and sympathizers in the general public |
| Republicans and Democrats on National Security | Republicans have become very "hawkish" while Democrats have become "dovish" |
| How else can membership in a social group affect individuals' political orientations? | Through the efforts of groups themselves to influence their members (EX: Labor Unions often seek to "educate" their members through meetings, rallies, and literature= These activities are meant to shape union members' understanding of politics and make them more amenable to supporting the political positions favored by union leaders) |
| How can organization sharpen the effect of membership in an involuntary group? | Women's/black/religious groups try to structure their members' political views through intensive educational programs (affects political opinion)= No particular efforts are required by groups to affect their members' beliefs and opinions because often individuals will consciously/unconsciously adapt their views to those of the groups with which they identify |
| Impact of group membership on political opinion | Women belonging to women organization are more likely than women without such group affiliation to differ from men in their political views- African Americans who belong to black organizations are more likely than blacks who lack such affiliations to differ from whites in their political orientation |
| Spiral of Silence | (Elisabeth Neumann) Process where dissenters gradually shift their own views to conform to those of the group |
| Objective Political Interests | Another way in which membership in social groups can affect political beliefs |
| Rich and Poor | Founding fathers though that gulf between rich and poor would always be the most important source of conflict in political life |
| Objective Interests | (In line with the Rationality Principle) While not always determinative, they exert strong influence on opinions and behavior (hence small number of black republicans and socialist businesspeople) |
| Differences in Education | Schooling is a great equalizer= Used by gov. to teach all children a common set of civic values= Mainly in school where Americans get basic belief in liberty, equality, and democracy |
| History Class; Class Elections and Student Government; Topics | Students learn that founder fought for principle of liberty in history class; Students are taught the virtues of democracy by partaking in class elections/student government; students are taught the importance of equality by studying topics like the Constitution, Civil War, civil rights movement |
| Going to College | (Part of differences in education) Students are exposed to philosophies and modes of thought that will forever distinguish them from their friends and neighbors who do not pursue college diplomas= Results in difference of political participation= College graduates vote, write letters to the editor, join campaigns, take part in protests, and generally make their voices heard |
| Political Conditions | Circumstances in which an individual comes of age politically (deals with the conditions under which individuals and groups are recruited into and involved in political life) |
| Political Beliefs | Although influenced by family background and group membership, the precise content and character of these views is determined by political circumstances |
| As political circumstances change... | So too can views held by members of a particular group |
| How cant you infer a group's view? | By looking at the character of the group |
| Generation of American students now coming of political age will have... | Different view of use of American military power than their parents, members of a generation who reached political consciousness during the 1960s (when opposition to Vietnam War and military conscription were important political phenomena) |
| Political Ideologies | Results from the combination of different political orientations, ideas, and beliefs= Include beliefs about the role of government, ideas about public policies, and notions about which groups in society should properly exercise power (EX: Liberalism and Conservatism) |
| Liberal | (In the past, described a person who supported the use of governmental power and favored continuation of the influence of church and aristocracy in national life)= Now implies support for political and social reform, extensive government intervention in the economy, expansion of federal social services, more vigorous efforts on behalf of the poor, minorities, and women, and greater concern for consumers and the environment= Is not monolithic= Equality is the most important core value= Almost all liberal views represent criticisms of or attacks on the foreign and domestic policies and cultural values of the business and commercial strata that have been prominent in the US |
| Liberals: Social and Cultural Areas | Support abortion rights and oppose state involvement with religious institutions and religious expression |
| Liberals: International Affairs | Support arms control, oppose the development and testing of nuclear weapons, support for aid to poor nations, oppose the use of American troops to influence the domestic affairs of developing nations, support international organizations (EX: UN) |
| Conservative | Describes those who generally support the social and economic status quo and are suspicious of efforts to introduce new political formulas and economic arrangements= Believe that a large and powerful government poses a threat to citizens' freedom= Oppose efforts to impose government regulation on business (saying that such regulation is frequently economically inefficient and costly and can ultimately lower the entire nation's standard of living)= Far from monolithic ideology= Liberty is the core value= Ideas represent this elite's defense of its positions against its enemies (who include organized labor, minority groups, and some intellectuals and professionals) |
| Conservatism: Domestic Arena | Oppose expansion of governmental activity (saying that solutions to social/economic problems can developed in the private sector) |
| Conservatism: Society and Culture | Oppose abortion and support school prayer |
| Conservatism: International Affairs | Support the maintenance of American military power |
| Relationships among elements of liberalism or conservatism | Are political rather than logical |
| How do liberals attack business and commercial elites? | By advocating more government regulation including consumer protection and environmental, opposition to weapons programs, and support for expensive social programs |
| How do conservatives counterattack liberals? | By asserting that government regulation of the economy is ruinous and that military weapons are needed in a changing world |
| Although it appears that Americans have adopted a more conservative outlook on some issues... | Their views in other ares have remained largely unchanged or have even become more liberal |
| Many individuals who are liberal on social issues... | Are conservative on economic issues (highlights fluid character of political debate) |
| What do we expect of citizens in our democracy? | That all have views about the major problems of the day as wll as opinions about who should be entrusted with the nation's leadership |
| How much do americans know about politics? | Some know alot but few devote sufficient time to really understand/evaluate the myraid issus with which they are bombarded on a regular basis |
| How many people do not know the nation's history | Half (particularly those who never attended college) |
| Describe ignorance | Is a predictable fact of political life= Some say that it is costly because it means spending time/money to collect/organize political information= Balanced against this cost to an individual is the very low probability that he/she will take an action that would not otherwise be taken and that such a departure in behavior would make a beneficial difference to him or her and that such a difference would exceed the cost of acquiring the information in the first place |
| Rationality principle and ignorance | Suggests that many people should more profitably devote their personal resources to more narrowly personal matter= Is suggested by the collective-action principle |
| Collective-Action Principle | Bearing of burdens is not likely to have much impact in a mass political setting |
| Rational Ignorance | People become partially informed, but usually not in detail |
| How do Americans get political information cheaply? | People listen to trusted others (EX: local minister, television minister, etc.)= Some of these trusted people lead the listeners in the opposite way= Is not reliable |
| Taking cues from others may lead individuals to... | Accept positions that they would, if they knew all the facts, not really support |
| Describe individuals' beliefs | When applied to discrete issues, are filled with contradictions (thus it is not good to rely on one's general orientation for decision making) |
| How does widespread inattentiveness to politics weaken American politics? | Those who lack political information/resort to inadequate shortcuts to get information cannot effectively defend their political interests and can easily become victims or losers in political struggles= Also, the presence of large numbers of politically inattentive or ignorant individuals means that the political process can be more easily manipulated by the various institutions and forces that seek to shape public opinion |
| Misplaced Self-Interest | When people think that they will benefit from something when they actually wont (EX: Bush's tax cut for wealthiest 1%) |
| Knowledge and Political Power | Knowledge doesn't always mean political power but ignorance always means political weakness= Lack of knowledge and concomitant political weakness mean policy disappointment |
| 3 Main Public Opinion Forces | Government, Private Groups, News Media |
| Governments and citizens beliefs | All governments try (to some extent) to manipulate their citizens' beliefs= But the extent is limited because, despite size and power, is 1 of many sources of information |
| War Room | Used by Bill Clinton to bolster populat enthusiasm for White House initiatives (similar to the one that operated in his campaign headquarters)= Reps. from all cabinets met daily to discuss the president's public relations efforts |
| Video News Release | Used by bush to shape public opinion= Commercial adds payed by taxpayers to promote the new Medicare prescription drug program (made to look like news stories)= Meant to give viewers the impression that they are watching a real news story (based on idea that people will believe what they see)= Attacked by democrats as a partisan propaganda campaign with public funds (republicans defense was attacking "war room" under same condition) |
| Rational political entrepreneurs pursue strategies that... | (An application of the collective-action principle) Give the groups they lead a decided advantage in the political arena in comparison with latent, unorganized groups |
| Partial Birth Abortion Ban Act of 2003 | Result of Private Groups who though that this would be the first step towards complete abortion |
| Saturday Night Specials | Campaign against cheap imported guns that was secretely financed by the domestic manufactures of more expensive firearms= Said that it would endanger public= Really were worried about income= Is an example if hidden goals |
| Campaign against "Sweat Shops" | Mainly financed by US labor unions to protect economic interests= Example of hidden goals |
| When are ideas marketed most effectively? | When they are sponsored by groups with a lot of money, resources, and workers |
| Issues Management | Refers to the Conservative ideas that have been marketed by US Chamber of Commerce and the Public Affairs Council= Conservatives then fund conservative institutions such as heritage Foundation, Hoover Institution, American Enterprise Institute |
| What was a product of the Conservative Institutions | Many ideas that helped the right gain influence in politics due to scholars who came from these institutions |
| Liberal Intellectuals and Professionals: Idea Marketing | Do not have access to financial assets that match those available to their conservative opponents= Do have great organizational skills, access to the MEDIA, and practice in creating/communicating/using ideas |
| Public Interest Group | (Dominant medium through which liberals have marketed their ideas) Institution that relies heavily on voluntary contributions of time/effort/interest on the part of its members (Groups are Sierra Club, Friends of the Earth, etc.) |
| Where are the ideas on which liberal politicians rely created? | From research conducted at universities and liberal "think tanks" (such as the Brookings Institution) |
| Ellwood Plan | National welfare improvement plan created by professor at Harvard and used by Clinton (borrowed from Ellwood's book Poor Support)= Said that welfare would improve if services to poor were expanded but limited in duration= Promised liberals immediate expansion of welfare benefits and offered conservatives idea that people would receive welfare benefits for limited time |
| Communications Media | Among most powerful forces in marketplace of ideas= Has enormous effect on popular attitudes and opinions= Overtime, the way the media reports political events helps shape underlying attitudes and beliefs from which opinions emerge (EX: investigated personal and official wrongdoing on the part of politicians and public officials= The continual coverage of governmental corruption had affect on opinion) |
| What causes major impacts on popular responses to and opinions about the events covered? | The ways in which media coverage interprets or frames specific events= MEDIA FRAMING IS IMPORTANT |
| Why is manipulating public opinion so easy? | Because so many are ignorant of politics (would work, however, even if people knew all about politics) |
| What did the 2006 election prove? | A competitive political environment permits attempts at manipulation to be countered and successful manipulations reversed |
| How was polling originally done? What was the result? | Done by gauging audiences response to speeches, etc.= Thus gave leaders confidence in their public support and therefore confidence in their ability to govern by consent |
| Old Debates vs. Present Debates | Originally presented directly for people= Now, although on TV, is in front of only a few people (thus no public response can be detected directly) |
| Problem with modern democracy | Distance between leaders and followers |
| Public Opinion Polls | Used to help politicians decide whether to run for office, what policies to support, how to vote on important legislation, and what types of appeals to make in their campaigns |
| Sample | Is smaller part out of the whole/large population= Selection of this sample MUST be REPRESENTATIVE: The views of those in the sample must accurately and proportionately reflect the views of the whole= The validity of the poll's results depends on the sampling procedure used |
| What are the most common techniques for choosing a sample? | Probability Sampling and Random Digit Dialing |
| Probability Sampling | Pollster begins with a list of the population to be surveyed= After each member of the population has been assigned a number, a table of random numbers/computerized random selection process is used to pick those members of the population to be surveyed |
| Sampling Frame | List of the population to be surveyed |
| What does a sample selected in Probability Sampling produce? | Produces a subset of the population that is representative of the population (=Microcosm) |
| What can the facts learned about the sample population be used for? | Can be attributed to the larger population with a high level of accuracy |
| When is Probability Sampling appropriate? | When the entire population can be identified= Is not feasable when the pollster is interested in a national sample of Americans because no complete list of Americans exists |
| How are national samples usually drawn? | Through a technique called Random Digit Dialing |
| Random Digit Dialing | Where a computerized random-number generator produces a list of as many 10-digit numbers as the pollster deems necessary= Because more than 95% of US households have telephones, the technique results in a random national sample |
| Why has Random Digit Dialing become less reliable? | Because of the growth in cell-phone use and the enactment of "do-not-call" legislation to discourage telemarketers |
| Selection Bias | Selection of a sample group that does not accurately represent the other group that is being represented (EX: sample of wealthy doesn't represent poor) |
| Jesse Ventura | (Example of Selection Bias) Polls showed that he would not win= However, on election day, he won= REASON: Polls take into account those who will not vote (by only polling those who voted in the last 2 elections)= However, when Ventura ran, he brought many voters who hadn't voted in along time, back to voting booths |
| What has further complicated polling? | Many people use caller ID, refuse to answer questions, and let the answering machine screen unwanted calls= Thus far, non-response bias has not undermined a major national survey |
| Social-Class Lines: Difference in polling responses | (Some studies say that the views of respondentes and non-respondents can differ) MIDDLE/UPPER-MIDDLE: More likely to be willing to respond to surveys and their working-class counterparts |
| What else is polling accuracy based on? | Sample SIZE= Typical size is 450 to 1,500 respondents= Reflects trade-off between cost and degree of precision desired= A larger and thus more costly sample size is associated with greater precision in making generalizations to the full population than is a smaller sample size |
| Sampling Error | (a.k.a. Margin of Error) Chance that the sample does not accurately represent the population from which it is drawn= Measures the range of possibilities for a particular characteristic of a population based on the estimate of that characteristic in the sample drawn= Margin of error acknowledges that any given sample may not be perfectly representative of the full population (EX: Survey of 1,500 respondents has sampling error of 3%)= Therefore, if results are too close, no conclusion can be made (51= 54 or 49) |
| Measurement Error | Surveys may fail to reflect the true distribution of opinion within a target population= Can be a result of the wording of survey questions= REsults can be adversely affected by poorly formatted questions, a faulty ordering of questions, inappropriate vocabulary, ambiguous questions, or questions with built-in biases |
| Push Polling | (Form of bias) Asking a respondent a loaded question about a political candidate, with the question designed to elicit the response sought by the pollster and, simultaneously, to shape the respondent's perception of the candidate in question= Is not a conventional use of legitimate survey methods (called the "olitical equivalent of a drive-by shooting") |
| Post-convention "Bounce" | When opinions suddenly change after the nomination conventions (because people before paid little attention to policies, etc.) |
| Salient Interests | Issues that are truly uppermost in the minds of voters at the time of an election= Are often difficult to forecast very far in advance= Are interests that are more than ordinary concerns to voters |
| Illusion of Salience | When people assume that something is important to the public when in fact it is not= Illusion can be created/fostered by polls despite careful controls in sampling, interviewing, and data analysis |
| Polling: Good and Bad | GOOD: Allows journalists to make independent assessments of political realities= BAD: Media polls can allow journalists to make news when none exists (reduces journalists dependence on news makers) |
| Horse Race News | When news is made based on polls= Made when there is nothing else to report on= The actualities of the situation come second to the reported "news" |
| Media interest in poll results... | Is inversely related to the salience of voters' opinions and the significance of the polls' findings= However, by influencing perceptions, media polls can influence political realities |
| Bandwagon Effect | Occurs when polling results influence people to support the candidate marked as the probable victor= Can be offset by an "underdog effect" |
| Underdog Effect | Offsets the bandwagon effect= In favor of the candidate who is trailing in the polls |
| Positive side of being ahead in the polls | Easier to raise campaign funds to thus fund more ads, etc. |
| Relationship between the public and government | "The Public" Should not be trusted when it comes to governing= Framers designed institutions that, although democratic, would insulate governmental decision making from popular pressure (EX: Indirect election of senators and presidents was meant to prevent the government from being too dependent on public opinion) |
| Doorstep Opinions | Opinions given off the tope of ones head |
| Page and Shapiro | Say that public opinion at the aggregate level is coherent and stable and moves in a predictable fashion in response to changing political/economic/social circumstances= Based on idea that the individual-level responses are plagued by various types of errors that mkae people's opinions seem incoherent and unstable= When a large number of individual level responses to survey questions are added up to produce an aggregate public opinion, the errors (=Noise) in the individual responses (if more or less random) will cancel one another out revealing a collective opinion that is stable, coherent, and meaningful= Concluded that the general public can be trusted with governing |
| Opinion and Policy | Are related because policy makers shaped opinion to support paths that were already planned take |
| Lack of consistency between opinion and government policy | Nominal majority on a particular issue may not be as intensely committed to its preference as the adherents o the minority viewpoint= Committed minority may be more willing to commit its tiime/energy/efforts to the affirmation of its opinions than an apathetic majority even if large= Also deals with the character and structure of the American system of government |
| What did the framers of the Constitution want the government to be based on? | Create a system of government that was based on popular consent but did not invariably and automatically translate shifting popular sentiments into public policies= Therefore, the American governmental process includes arrangements such as an appointed judiciary that can produce policy decisions that may run contrary to prevailing popular sentiment |
| How can the inconsistency between opinion and policy be resolved? | If we used the ballot initiative (which is already being used in many state) much more |
| Ballot Initiative | Procedure that allows propositions to be placed on the ballot and voted into law by the electorate, bypassing most of the normal machinery of representative government |
| What is the main problem with government by initiative? | Offers little opportunity for reflection and compromise (i.e. shown proposition and told "take it or leave it"= Solution may lie somewhere between the positions taken by the various interest groups) |
| Capacity for Compromise | One reason the framers of the Constitution strongly favored representative government rather than direct democracy |
