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| What has migration caused? | The diffusion of human settlement from a small portion of Earth's land area to most of it |
| To accomplish the spread across Earth... | Humans have permanently changed their place of residence |
| What do geographers study in migrants? | FROM WHERE people migrate TO WHERE they migrate to (across the SPACE of Earth)= They also ask WHY did they migrate |
| In the US, the average family moves... | 1 time every 6 years |
| Why do people migrate? | Economic opportunity, cultural freedom, environmental comfort |
| Diffusion | Process by which a characteristic spreads from one area to another |
| Relocation Diffusion | Spread of a characteristic through the bodily movement of people from one place to another |
| Migration | (Is a specific type of relocation diffusion) A permanent move to a new location= Is a form of mobility= Is a form of relocation diffusion and expansion diffusion= People decide to migrate due to push and pull factors |
| The flow of migration always involves... | 2-way CONNECTIONS (people may migrate from A to B or from B to A) |
| Emigration | Migration FROM a location |
| Immigration | Migration TO a location |
| Net Migration | Difference between the number of immigrants and the number of emigrants |
| Net In-Migration | (Net migration is positive) If the # of immigrants exceeds the # of emigrants |
| Net Out-Migration | (Net migration is negative) If the # of emigrants exceeds the # of immigrants |
| Mobility | General term covering all types of movements from one place to another (i.e. can be any type of movement)= Occurs much less frequently than other forms of mobility (because it produces profound changes for individuals and entire cultures) |
| Circulation | (Form of Mobility) Short-term, repetitive, or cyclical movements that recur on a regular basis |
| Seasonal Mobility | Displayed by college students= Move to a dorm each fall and return home following spring |
| A permanent move to a new location... | Disrupts traditional cultural ties and economic patterns in one REGION= When people migrate, however, they carry with them their life-style/culture |
| What makes relocation diffusion more feasible than in the past? | Changing scale generated by modern transportation systems (i.e. motor vehicles/airplanes)= In the past, relied on animals, walking, etc. |
| What has the communications system done in terms of relocation diffusion? | Relocation diffusion no longer essential for transmittal of ideas from one place to another= Culture and economy can diffuse rapidly around world through forms of expansion diffusion |
| Why do people still migrate in large numbers if people can participate in the globalization of culture and economy regardless of place of residence? | PLACE is still important to an individual's cultural identity and economic prospects |
| Within a global economy, an individual's ability to earn a living... | Varies by location |
| Within a global culture, people migrate... | To be reunited with others of similar culture |
| What causes pockets of local diversity? | Migration of people with similar cultural values |
| In what way is migration a form of expansion diffusion? | Someone may migrate and send back a message that encourages others to migrate |
| Reasons for migrating | Most people migrate for ECONOMIC REASONS= Cultural and environmental factors induce migration but not as frequently as economic factors |
| Push Factor | Induces people to move out of present location |
| Pull Factor | Induces people to move into new location |
| For people to migrate, people must view... | Their current home so negatively that they feel pushed away and they view another place so attractively that they feel pulled toward it |
| Main types of Push/Pull Factors? | Economic, cultural, environmental= Usually one of factors emerges as most important |
| Economic Push/Pull Factors | People think about emigrating from place with few job opportunities and they immigrate to places where jobs seem to be available |
| Because of economic restructuring, job prospects... | Often vary from one country to another and within regions of the same country |
| Why did US and Canada attract many immigrants? | Offered chances for economic advancement |
| Attractiveness of a region can shift... | With economic change |
| Cultural Push/Pull Factor | Compelling PUSH factor, forcing people to emigrate from a country |
| Why has forced international migration occurred in the past? | (For 2 main cultural reasons) Slavery and political instability (many people shipped as slaves/prisoners [especially from Asia to Western Hemisphere]) |
| Although many people were no longer forced to migrate as slaves in the 20th century, forced international migration increased because of... | Political instability resulting from cultural diversity= (Main culprits are segregational state boundary lines and wars) |
| Boundary lines of newly independent states often have often been drawn to... | Segregate 2 ethnic groups= Because some intermingling among ethnicities inevitably occurs, members of an ethnic groups caught on the "wrong" side of a boundary may be forced to migrate to the other side |
| What have Wars done? | Forced large-scale migration of ethnic groups in the 20th/21st century (e.g. Europe and Africa) |
| Refugees | (According to UN) People who have been forced to migrate from their homes and cannot return for fear of persecution because of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a social group, or political opinion= they have no home until another country agrees to allow them in, or improving conditions make possible a return to their former home= In the interim, they must camp out in tents, sleep in the streets, etc. |
| US Committee for Refuges | (Nonprofit organization independent of US government) Counted many refuges in need of aid= 2 largest groups of international refugees are Palestinians and Afghans |
| Palestinians | People who left Israel after the country was created in 1948 or those who left territories captured by Israel in 1967 |
| Afghans | Large # of refugees resulted from a quarter century of civil war that began with former Soviet Union invasion of country in 1979 |
| 2 largest groups of internal refugees are in... | Sudan and Colombia |
| Sudan | Many internal/international refugees caused by quarter-century long civil war between rebel armies in south and northern-based government forces= Religious/cultural disputes are intertwined in southerners' fight for autonomy |
| Columbia | Government battles with drug lords and with guerrillas promoting land/social reform have resulted in many refugees= Columbia has supplied 90% of the cocaine reaching US |
| Political Condition Push/Pull Factor | Act as a PULL factor especially the lure of freedom= People are attracted to democratic countries that encourage individual choice in education, career, and place of residence= Hard to disentangle from a push factor because the pull of democracy is normally accompanied by the push from a totalitarian country (EX: Berlin Wall= After election of democratic government in East Europe, desire to leave dropped= West Europe still attracts many for economic reasons) |
| Environmental Push/Pull Factors | People are pulled toward physically attractive regions and pushed from hazardous ones= In an age of improved communications and transportation systems, people can live in environmentally attractive areas that are remote and still not feel too isolated from society= People are pushed from their homes by adverse physical conditions |
| Attractive Environments for migrants: | Mountains, seasides, warm climates= Proximity to Rocky Mountains lures Americans to Colorado and Alps pull French to east France; Florida attracts many due to hot weather (1/3 of elderly who move from state to state choose Florida)= People with asthma, TB, bronchitis, and allergies are pulled to Arizona by dry desert climate (large migration there has ironically changed environment conditions= Pollen increased dramatically) |
| Why types of physical conditions push migrants from their homes? | Water (either too much/little) poses most common environmental threat= Many forced to move by water-related disasters because they live in a vulnerable area (i.e. floodplain) |
| Floodplain | The floodplain of a river is the area subject to flooding during a specific number of years (based on trends)= Many don't know that they live in a Floodplain and those who do know choose to still live there (EX: New Orleans and other Gulf Coast communities) |
| People living in the "100-Year Floodplain" can expect... | Flooding on average once every century |
| Sahel Region of Northern Africa | Many forced to leave due to severe droughts= People are mainly pastoral nomads (culture adapted to dry areas but effective ONLY at LOW population densities)= Sahel's capacity to sustain life has decreased due to increase in population |
| Intervening obstacle | Environmental/cultural feature that hinders migration= Is the reason why migrants may move to an area that is not their desired destination= In past, mainly environmental (EX: Before modern transportation, people migrated on foot= Was hard to migrate due to environment)= Bodies of water are also important |
| Intervening obstacle: Bodies of Water | Atlantic Ocean was challenge for European immigrants to North America= Many saved up money, East Europeans were duped (paid for journey to America but taken to other part of Europe) |
| Transportation Improvements and Intervening Obstacles | Transportation improvements that have promoted globalization (i.e. motor vehicle/airplane) have diminished the importance of environmental features as intervening obstacles |
| What intervening obstacles do today's migrants face? | Intervening obstacles created by local diversity in government and politics= A migrant needs a passport to legally emigrate from a country and a visa to legally immigrate to a new country |
| Distance of Migration | (Observations made by Ravenstein's theories) Most migrants relocate a short distance and remain within the same country= Long-distance migrants to other countries head for major centers of economic activity |
| International Migration | (3% of world's population are international migrants) Permanent movement from one country to another= US is the country with the greatest number of international migrants |
| Internal Migration | Permanent movement within the same country= Is found to be less traumatic compared to international migration (because similar life/culture)= Moves are also shorter in distance than those in international migration (internal migration can still involve long-distance moves in large countries [EX: Russia and US]) |
| The farther away a place is located... | (Related to the "Distance-Decay Principle" principle) The less likely that people will migrate to it |
| Types of internal migration | Interregional Migration and Intraregional Migration |
| Interregional Migration | Movement from one region of a country to another= Main type has been from rural to urban areas in search of jobs (recently, developed countries have seen migration from urban to environmentally attractive rural areas) |
| Intraregional Migration | Movement within one region= Main type has been within urban areas (from older cities to newer suburbs) |
| Types of international migration | Forced and Voluntary |
| Voluntary Migration | (Type of international migration) Implies that the migrant has chosen to move for economic improvement= Are usually caused by economic push/pull factors |
| Forced Migration | (Type of international migration) Means that the migrant has been compelled to move by cultural factors= Usually caused by cultural factors |
| Migration Transition | (Identified by Wilbur Zelinsky) Consists of changes in a society comparable to those in the demographic transition= Is a change in the migration pattern in a society that results from the social nd economic changes that also produce the demographic transition= Says that international migration is typical of countries in stage 2 of demographic transition= Says internal migration is typical of countries in stages 3 and 4= Society in stage 1 is unlikely to migrate permanently to a new location (but does have high mobility) |
| Migration Transition: Stage 2 | International migration becomes important as well as interregional migration from one country's rural areas to its cities= Migration patterns are a consequence of technological change= Improvement in agricultural practices reduces the number of people needed in rural areas whereas jobs in factories attract migrants to the cities in another region of the same country or in another country |
| Migration Transition: Stage 3 and 4 | Societies in stage 3 and 4 are the destinations of the international migrants leaving the stage 2 countries in search of economic opportunities= Principal form of internal migration within stage 3 and 4 countries is intraregional (from cities to surrounding suburbs) |
| Characteristics of Migrants | (Ravenstein noted distinctive gender/family-status patterns) Most long-distance migrants are male and adult individuals (rather than families with children) |
| Gender of Migrants | Ravenstein though males were more likely than females to migrate long distance to other countries because searching for work was the main reason for international migration and males were much more likely than females to be employed (Held true for US immigrants [19th century, 55% male] but switched in 1990s [55% US immigrants are women]) |
| Mexican Immigrants who come to the US without proper immigration documents... | Are currently the largest group of US immigrants= 1980s, 85% were men but in 1990s, women have accounted for 1/2 of the undocumented immigrants from Mexico |
| What does the increased female-Mexican migration to the US reflect? | Changing role of women in Mexican society= In past, rural Mexican women had to marry at young age and remain in village to care for children= Now, some Mexican women are migrating to US to join husbands/brothers already in the US (but most are seeking JOBS)= Women also feel increased pressure to get a job in the US because of poor economic conditions in Mexico |
| Family Status of Migrants | Ravenstein believed that most long-distance migrants were young adults seeking work rather than children/elderly people= True with US (40% of immigrants are between ages 25 and 39 and immigrants are less likely to be elderly people [only about 5% of immigrants are over age 65)= Increasing % of US immigrants are children (16% under age 15) |
| What has caused the increase in children migrants to the US? | Is a result of the increase in women migrating to the US |
| Recent immigrants to the US and education | Have attended school for fewer years and are less likely to have high school diplomas than are US citizens (Typical undocumented Mexican has attended school for 4 years [less than average American but a year more than the average Mexican]) |
| The origin of Mexican immigrant to the US matches what? | The expectations of the migration transition and distance-decay theories= With Mexico in stage 2 of demographic transition, more than 3/4 of migrants are from rural areas= Destinations of choice in US are mainly states that border Mexico (California gets 1/2, Texas gets 1/5) |
| Where do most Mexican immigrants originate from? | Not from Mexico's northern states but from interior states far from the US border (as the distance decay theory would suggest) |
| What are the leading sources of Mexican migrants? | Guanajuato, Jalisco, Chihuahua, Zacatecas (only Chihuahua is on US border) |
| Residents of Mexico's border states are... | Less likely to migrate to US because jobs are relatively plentiful as a result of increased economic integration with the US |
| Most illegal Mexican immigrants have... | Jobs in their home villages but migrate to US to earn more money= Most work in agriculture and some work in clothing= Still, people prefer to get little money for much work compared to living in terrible conditions= Most have little trouble finding work in US (some employers like to hire immigrants who do not have visas that permit them to work in US because they can pay lower wages and do not have to provide healthcare)= Unhappy workers can be threatened with deportation/being fired |
| Why does the flow of Mexican immigrants vary throughout the year? | Because farm work is seasonal= Greatest # of Mexicans head north to US ini autumn and return home in spring= The $ brought back by seasonal migrants is the primary source of income for many Mexican villages (and the $ is removed from US economy)= During the winter, these villages may be inhabited almost entirely by women/children |
| Global Migration Patterns | Asia, Latin America, and Africa have net out-migration= North America, Europe, and Oceania have net-in migration |
| What are the 3 largest flows of migrants? | Migrants to Europe from Asia and to North America from asia and from Latin America= In-Migration occurs from Europe to North America and from Asia to Oceania= Lower levels of net migration occur from Latin America to Oceania and from Africa to Europe, North America, and Oceania |
| What does the global migration pattern show? | Reflects the importance of migration from less developed countries to more developed countries |
| Migrants from countries with low income and high natural increase rates head for... | Wealthy countries where job prospects are brighter |
| US population: immigrants | (Comprise 12% of US population) Contains 35 million immigrants= 1/2 of these immigrants were born in Latin America and 1/4 in Asia= More than 1/2 of Latin American immigrants came from Mexico= US contains largest number of immigrants but has a smaller % of immigrants than other less populous countries |
| Where can he highest % of immigrants be found? | In the Middle East (1/2 of the region's total population)= These countries and other petroleum-exporting countries of the Middle East attract immigrants from porrer Middle Eastern countries and from Asia to perform many of the dirty and dangerous functions in the oil fields |
| 3 Eras of Immigration in the US | FIRST= initial settlement of colonies; SECOND= Began in mid-19th century and culminated in early 20th century; THIRD= Began in 1970s and continues today= The eras have drawn immigrants from different regions |
| 1st Era of US Immigration | Most immigrants were English or African slaves |
| 2nd Era of US Immigration | Almost all were European |
| 3rd Era of US Immigration | More than 3/4 were from Latin America and Asia |
| Why have people migrated to the US? | (Although origins vary, migration reasons are same) Rapid population growth limited prospects for economic advancement at home= Europeans left when countries entered stage 2 and Latin Americans and Asians began to leave recently after their countries entered stage 2 (but European immigrants saw a different America than present day immigrants) |
| Colonial Immigration for England and Africa | Most Africans were forced to migrate to US as slaves while most Europeans were voluntary migrants (although harsh economic conditions and persecution in Europe blurred distinction between forced and voluntary migration for many Europeans)= Majority of European immigrants from Great Britain= Most African Americans were forced to migrated as slaves (many were shipped as slaves to the 13 colonies b British [slave importation made illegal in 1808 but still continued]) |
| 19th-Century Immigration from Europe | Most went to US (remainder went to temperate climates of Canada, etc.)= For European migrants, US offered greatest opportunity for economic success (immigrants encouraged family at home to migrate)= Germany has sent the most immigrants= 1/4 of Americans trace ancestry to German immigrants and 1/8 to Irish and English immigrants)= Frequent boundary changes in Europe make precise national counts impossible |
| First peak of European Immigration | Level of immigration to US surged during 1840s and 1850s (2 times as many than past)= 1840s and 1850s, 95% of all US immigrants came from Northern and Western Europe (2/5 from Ireland and 1/3 from Germany)= Desperate economic ush factors compelled the Irish and Germans to cross Atlantic= Germans migrated to escape from political unrest as well as from poor economic conditions |
| Second peak of European Immigration | US immigration declined during 1860s due to Civil War but began to increase in 1870s= Immigration reached second peak in 1880s (more than 1/2 million immigrants per year)= Most came from Northern and Western Europe (1/3 German, and Irish still constituted large %)= Other countries in Northern/Western Europe sent increasing # of migrants (Scandinavian countries of Norway and Sweden= Caused because industrial revolution reached these countries and thus population grew rapidly because they entered stage 2 [was harder to get work]= Those who could not find land to farm at home [such as those whose older siblings got their parents land] migrated to cities but some decide to migrate elsewhere) |
| Third Peak of European Immigration | Economic problems in US discouraged immigration during early 1890s but later reached 3rd peak (million immigrants per year) and the record was in 1907 (1.3 million per year)= More than 90% were European (but instead of coming from Great Britain, Ireland, and Germany, msot came from countries that previously had sent few people [1/4 from Italy, Russia, and Austria-Hungary)= Immigrants came from Southern and Eastern Europe in early 20th century for same reasons Northern/Western Europeans migrated previously= Shift in the main source of immigrants coincided with diffusion of the industrial revolution from Northern and Western Europe to Southern and Eastern Europe= Populations thus grew and work was harder to find)= Recent immigrants comprise more than 20% of population in northeastern states (across a northern tier between Michigan and Montana and along the Pacific Coast) |
| Recent Immigration from Less Developed Regions | Immigration to US dropped in 1930s and 1940s during Great Depression and WWII (during time, # of immigrants leaving US exceeded incoming immigrants)=Latin America and Asia have provided most of recent US immigrants |
| Immigration from Asia | During 19th/20th Century 1 million Asians came to US (from China, Turkey, and Japan)= Last quarter of 20th century, many came= Asia was leading source of immigrants between the late 1970s and 1980s until overtaken by Latin America= 4 Leading sources of Asian immigrants have been China, Philippines, India, and Vietnam (together, accounted for 2/3 of all Asian immigrants) |
| Canada's Immigrants | Takes in 50% more immigrants per capita than does US= Asians also comprise more than 40% of Canadian immigrants (but compared to US, Canada receives higher % of Europeans and lower % of Latin Americans) |
| Immigration from Latin America | Mexico passed Germany in 2006 as the country that has sent to the US the most immigrants ever (Because of large # of undocumented immigrants, Mexico became the leading source during the 1980s)= Dominican Republic is second leading source of immigrants from Latin America during past quarter century followed by El Salvador |
| 1986 Immigration Reform and Control Act= What was it and what was the result? | Issued visas to many people who entered US in past years without legal documents= Resulted in extremely high # of immigrants from Latin America in early 1990s= US in 1991 admitted more immigrants than any other year in history |
| Pattern and reason for US immigration | Pattern has changed from European to Asian to Latin American= Reasons have been same (economic opportunity)= Europeans came because they saw US as place to escape from pressures of land shortage and rapid population increase (similar for Asian and Latin Americans) |
| What did the closing of the American Frontier Symbolize? | No more space to accommodate an unlimited number of immigrants |
| Impact of Immigration on US | Population built up from emigration from Africa and England primarily during 18th century, from Europe during 19th century, and from Latin America and Asia ruing 20th century= 21st century immigration impact varies around country |
| When did era of massive European migration to US end? | Ended with start of WWI in 1914 because the war involved the most important source countries (like Austria-Hungary, Germany, Russia, US)= Level of European emigration has steadily declined since then= Europeans accounted for 1/4 of all US immigrants in 1970s and 1/7 since 1980 |
| What pushed Europe into Stage 2 of Demographic Transition? Result? | Rapid population growth in Europe fueled emigration (especially after 1800)= Application of new technologies spawned by industrial revolution (i.e. public health, medicine, food) produced rapid decline in death rate and pushed much of Europe into stage 2 (high growth rate)= As population increased, many Europeans found limited opportunities for economic advancement |
| What did some European governments do to promote more efficient agriculture? | Forced consolidation of many small farms into larger units |
| Historically, describe family farms | Often had to be divided among many relatives and the average farm was becoming too small to be profitable |
| Enclosure Movement | (Name given in England to the consolidation policy) Forced many people to emigrate from rural areas= Displaced farmers could choose to work in factories in large cities or migrate to US or other country where farmland was plentiful |
| When Europe's population began to increase rapidly because of the industrial revolution, what was the US to Europe? | US was Europe's safety valve= Migration to the US drained off some of Europe's growth= RESULT: People remaining in Europe enjoyed more of the economic and social benefits from the industrial revolution |
| Present day European Countries: Describe | Most European countries now have very low natural increase rates (stage 4) and economies capable of meeting needs of their people= Countries (like Germany, Italy, Ireland) that once sent many people annually to the US now send few= The safety valve is no longer needed |
| European Migration: Effect on world culture | Like all migrants, Europeans brought their cultural heritage to their new homes= Because of migration, Indo-European languages are now spoken by 1/2 of world's people and Christianity (which is Europe's most prevalent religion) has the world's largest # of adherents= European art/music/etc. has also diffused throughout world |
| Regions that were sparsely inhabited prior to European immigration have become what? What are those regions? | Those regions (like North America and Australia) have become closely integrated into Europe's cultural traditions= Distinctive European political structures/economic systems have diffused to these regions |
| Europeans planted the seeds of conflict by migrating to what types of areas? Why? | Europeans planted seeds of conflict by migrating to regions that have large indigenous populations (especially in Africa and Asia)= Europeans often imposed political domination on existing populations and injected their cultural values with little regard for local traditions |
| Because of European immigration, the economies in Africa and Asia became... | Based on extracting resources for export to Europe rather than on using those resources to build local industry |
| Where did European migrants establish plantations? What did they grow and why? Describe situation | In more tropical climates (especially in Latin America and Asia), European migrants established plantations that grew cotton, rice, sugar, and tobacco for sale back in Europe= Europeans owned most of the plantations but few worked on them (instead most of the workers were native Asians or Latin Americas or were slaves from Africa) |
| Many of today's conflicts in former European colonies result from... | Past practices by European immigrants such as drawing arbitrary boundary lines and discriminating among different local ethnic groups |
| Present day immigration to US | Legal immigration to US has reached highest level since the early 20th century yet the # of people who wish to migrate to the US is much higher than the quotas permit |
| Undocumented Immigrants | (a.k.a. Unauthorized immigrants) Those who cannot legally enter the US and thus immigrate illegally (i.e. are entering the US without proper documents) |
| Currently, how many undocumented immigrants migrate into the US without proper documents? | No one knows amount= The Urban Institute estimated around 9.3 million (5.3 mill from Mexico, 2.2 mill from other Latin American countries, 1 mill from Asia, 1/2 mill from Europe and Canada, 1/2 mill from rest of world)= Pew Hispanic Center estimated higher level of 11.1 mill in 2005 and between 11.5 and 12 mill in 2006 |
| The Pew Hispanic Center's 2005 estimate of undocumented immigrants | Included 5.4 mill adult males, 3.9 mill adult females, 1.8 mill children= Also, 3.1 mill children who were US citizens were living in families with an adult who was an unauthorized immigrant= Also found that 40% of the unauthorized immigrants had been in US for 5 years or less, 26% between 5 and 10 years, and 34% more than 10 years |
| Why do people enter/remain in US without authorization? | Because they want to work but do not have permission to do so from the government |
| According to the Pew Hispanic Center, how many of the 11.1 million unauthorized immigrants in 2005 were employed? | 7.2 million were employed, accounting for 5% of the total US civilian labor force= Constituted 24% of workers in farming, 17% in cleaning, 14% in construction, and 12% in food preparation |
| What 2 choices do foreigners who fail to get work visas have if they still wish to work in the US? | Approximately 1/2 of the undocumented residents legally enter the country as students/tourists and then remain after they are supposed to leave= The other 1/2 simply slip across the boarder without showing a passport and visa to a boarder guard |
| Describe: US-Mexican Border and crossing it illegally | Crossing the border illegally is not hard= Guards heavily patrol official boarder crossings (most are located in urban areas [e.g. El Paso, Texas, San Diego, California] or along highways)= However, boarder is 2,000 miles long, is broken in many places, and runs through sparsely inhabited regions that are guarded by few agents= Actually finding the border is hard in some remote areas |
| Joint US-Mexican International Boundary and Water Commission | Responsible for keeping official maps (thus makes finding border hard)= Is responsible for making the border by maintaining 276 6-foot-tall iron monuments and 440 15-inch-tall markers |
| Once in US, how do undocumented immigrants become "documented"? | By purchasing cheap forged documents (25$) including a birth certificate, alien registration card, and social security number |
| What happens to the minority of illegal immigrants who are caught? | The US Department of Homeland Security have captured an average of 1.3 million undocumented immigrants per year since 1980= More than 90% of those apprehended have been Mexicans= To save time and money, border patrols escort most of them out of country (however the overwhelming majority simply retrace their steps and recross the border) |
| Americans' opinion of undocumented migration? | Most recognize that they take jobs that no one else wants and a majority would support some type of work-related program to make them legal= However, many would like more effective border patrols so fewer aliens can get into country |
| 1986 Immigration Reform and Control Act | Tried to reduce flow of illegal immigrants to US= Under the law, aliens who could prove that they lived in US continuously between 1982 and 1987 could become permanent resident aliens and apply for US citizenship after 5 years= Seasonal agricultural workers could also qualify for permanent residence and citizenship |
| 1986 Immigration Reform and Control Act: What happened after it passed | Only 1.3 million agricultural workers and 1.8 million others applied for permanent residence (far fewer than gov. officials estimated)= Other undocumented residents feared that if their applications were rejected, they would be deported= Many of those who got permanent residence were later found to have purchased fraudulent papers on the black market |
| 1986 Immigration Reform and Control Act: What did it do in terms of further illegal immigration? | Discouraged further illegal immigration by making it harder for recent immigrants to get jobs without proper documentation= An employer must verify that a newly hired worker can legally work in the US and may be fined/imprisoned for hiring an undocumented worker |
| Distribution of recent immigrants | Not distributed uniformly through US= More than 1/2 are clustered in 4 states including more than 1/4 in California and more than 1/4 in New York, Florida, and Texas |
| Entry points for aliens | Costal states were once main entry points because most aliens arrived by ship= Today, most arrive by motor vehicle/airplane but coastal states continue to attract migrants= California and Texas are 2 most popular states for entry of motor vehicles from Mexico (and these states have the countries busiest airports for international arrivals) |
| Aliens show a similar pattern in that... | 1/4 are in California, 1/4 are in Texas or Florida, 1/4 are in New York, Arizona, Illinois, Georgia, New Jersey= Remaining 1/4 are in the other 43 states |
| Undocumented immigration is relatively high in states that... | Are relatively accessible to Mexico (where more than 90% originate) |
| Who do individual states attract? Examples | Immigrants from different countries= Immigrants from Mexico go to California, Texas, Illinois= Immigrants from Caribbean island countries go to New York or Florida= Chinese and Indiands immigrate to New YOrk or California (and other Asians immigrate to California) |
| Immigration patters are based on what? | Proximity influences some decisions but is not a factor for others (e.g. Poles to Illinois; Iranians to California)= Immigrants cluster in communities where people from the same country previously settled= Job prospects also affect states that immigrants go to |
| Chain Migration | Migration of people to a specific location because relatives or members of the same nationality previously migrated there |
| Why has/does the South and West attract a large % of immigrants? | Because the regions have had more rapid growth in jobs than the Northeast or Midwest |
| Why have many immigrants migrated to Midwest recently? Who are they? | Many immigrants especially Mexicans have migrated to Midwest to take industrial jobs shunned by Americans (such as in meatpacking and related food processing) |
| What was the principal obstacle traditionally faced by migrants of other countries? What are the obstacles now? | The long/dangerous/expensive passage over land/by sea= Today, cars/planes bring immigrants quickly/safely= Major obstacles faced by current immigrants begin after they arrive at their desired destination |
| What 2 difficulties do immigrants face? | Gaining permission to enter a new country and hostile attitudes of citizens once they enter the new country |
| What 2 policies have been adopted by countries to which work-seeking immigrants desire to migrate? | US uses a quota system to limit the # of foreign citizens who can migrate permanently to the country and obtain work= Other major recipients of immigrants (especially in Western Europe and Middle East) permit guest workers to work temporarily but not stay permanently |
| When did the era of unrestricted immigration to the US end? | When Congress passed the Quota Act in 1921 and the National Origins Act in 1924= These laws established quotas |
| Quotas | Maximum limits on the # of people who can immigrate to the US from each country during a 1-year period= Said that for each country that had native-born persons already living in the US, 2% of their number (based on the 1910 census) could immigrate each year= System remained until 1960s |
| The Quota limited the number of immigrants from what area(s)? | Limited # from Eastern Hemisphere to 150,000 per year (virtually all of whom had to be from Europe) |
| What were quota laws designed to do? | Ensure that most immigrants to US continued to be Europeans= Although Asians never accounted for more than 5% of immigrants during late 19th and early 20th centuries, many Americans were alarmed at idea of many Asians flooding into US (especially to states along the Pacific Coast) |
| Following passage of the Immigration Act of 1965... | Quotas for individual countries were eliminated in 1968 and replaced with HEMISPHERE QUOTAS |
| Hemisphere Quotas | Annual # of US immigrants was restricted to 170,000 from Eastern Hemisphere and 120,000 from Western Hemisphere |
| In 1978, the hemisphere quotas were replaced with what? | Global Quota of 290,000 (including a max of 20,000 per country) |
| The current immigration law has a global quota of... | 620,000 with no more than 7% from one country (but many exceptions/qualifications heavily alter the limit) |
| Because # of applicants for admission to US far exceeds the current quotas... | Congress has set preferences= Current law permits up to 480,000 family-sponsored immigrants plus 140,000 employment-related immigrants (with many exceptions)= About 3/4 of the immigrants are admitted to reunify families, primarily spouses or unmarried children of people already living in the US (the typical wait for a spouse to get in is 5 years)= Many siblings/relatives of noncitizens are admitted (although chance of being selected is as slim as winning the lottery)= Skilled workers and exceptionally talented professionals get most of remaining 1/4 of visas= Others are admitted by lottery under a diversity category to people from countries that historically sent few people to US |
| To whom does the quota not apply? | Refugees (are admitted if they are judged genuine refugees)= Spouses, children, and parents of US citizens are admitted without limit= These 2 groups are the main reason why the # of immigrants to US varies from year to year (because # in these groups are unpredictable) |
| Asians and the current quota laws | Have made good use of the priorities set by the laws |
| How do many Asians gain access into the US? | Many well-educated Asians enter US under the preference for skilled workers= Once admitted, they can bring in relatives under the family-reunification provisions of the quota= These immigrants can later bring in a wider ranger of other relatives from Asia through a process of chain migration |
| Some of today's immigrants to the US and Canada are poor people... | Pushed from their homes by economic desperation but most are young, well-educated people lured to economically growing countries |
| Immigrant scientists, researchers, doctors, and other professionals migrate to countries where... | They can make better use of their abilities= After earning a Ph.D., young scholars find more teaching positions available at American universities than at home |
| Some countries say that by giving preference to skilled workers, immigration policies in the US and Europe do what? Example | Contribute to a brain drain= The World Bank found that the percentage of citizens with a college education who lived abroad in 2005 was 84% in Haiti, 47% in Ghana, 45% in Mozambique, 30-some% in Kenya, Laos, etc. |
| Brain Drain | A Large-scale emigration by talented people |
| Who are sometimes allowed to migrate temporarily? Example | People unable to migrate permanently to a new country for employment opportunities= Prominent forms of temporary-work migrants include guest workers in Europe and the Middle East and time-contract workers in Asia |
| Guest Workers | Citizens of poor countries who get jobs in Western Europe and Middle East |
| Describe Guest Workers in Europe | Are protected by minimum-wage laws, labor union contracts, other support programs= Foreign-born workers comprise more than 1/2 of labor force in Luxembourg, 1/6 in Switzerland, 1/10 in Austria/Belgium/Germany= 700,000 immigrants enter Europe legally annually plus 500,000 illegally |
| Are guest workers important in Western Europe? Why/why not | Yes because they take low-status and low-skilled jobs that local residents won't accept (EX: In Berlin, Brussels, Paris, and Zurich they provide essential services like driving buses, collecting garbage, repairing streets, washing dishes) |
| European Guest Workers: $ | Although low paid by European standards, they make much more $ than they would at home |
| In what way does economy of guest worker's native country benefit? | By letting their people work elsewhere, poorer countries reduce their own unemployment problems= Workers also help native country by sending a large % of their earnings back home to their families= The injection of foreign currency then stimulates local economy |
| Obtaining work permits in the UK | United Kingdom severely restricts ability of foreigners to get work permits |
| Why is British policy complicated? | By the legacy of country's former worldwide empire= When some of UK's former colonies were granted indep., residents could choose to remain British citizens or become citizens of new country= Many former colonials in India, Ireland, Pakistand, and West Indies retained their British citizenship and eventually moved to UK= However, spouses/other family members who are citizens of the new countries do not have the right to come to Britain |
| Where do most guest workers in Europe come from? | North Africa, Middle East, Eastern Europe, Asia |
| What distinct migration routes have of guest workers have emerged among the exporting and importing countries in Europe? | Turkey sends many to Northern Europe (especially to Germany as a result of government agreements)= Guest workers in France come from former French colonies in North Africa (like Algeria and Morocco) |
| What was the largest movement of guest workers from one country to another within Europe? | Turkey sending guest workers to Northern Europe, mainly Germany= 3/4 of a million Turks are employed in Germany |
| How did many Asians migrate in the 19th century? | As time contract laborers, recruited for fixed period to work in mines or on plantations= When contracts expired, many settled permanently in the new country |
| Where do many ethnic Chinese currently/permanently live? | In other countries, for the most part in Asia= Chines comprise 3/4 of the population in Singapore, 1/3 in Malaysia, and 1/10 in Thailand= Most migrants were from southeastern China |
| Chinese migration patterns | Vary among ethnic groups of Chinese |
| Why have many people in Asia recently immigrated illegally? Example | To find work in other countries= # of illegal foreign workers in Taiwan range from 20,000 to 70,000 (most are Filipinos, Thais, and Malaysians who are attracted by employment in textile manufacturing, construction, and other industries) |
| Economic status of illegal foreign workers in Taiwan | These immigrants accept 1/2 pay demanded by Taiwanese (for the level is much higher than what they are likely to get at home if they could even find employment) |
| Migrants seeking economic opportunities VS refugees fleeing from the persecution of an undemocratic government | hard to distinguish between them= Has been very hard to distinguish for emigrants from Cuba, Haiti, and Vietnam= Distinguishing between economic migrants and refugees is important because the US, Canada, and Western European countries treat the 2 differently |
| Treatment of Economic Migrants | Generally not admitted to US/Canada/Western European countries unless they have special skills/a close relative already there (even then, they still must compete with similar applicants from other countries) |
| Treatment of Refugees | Get special priority in admission to other countries |
| US Government's view of emigrants from Cuba | Seen as political refugees since the 1959 revolution that brought Communist government of Fidel Castro to power= US gov. has prevented companies from buying/selling in Cuba and Cuba has been excluded from cooperative organizations of Western Hemisphere countries= Following the revolution, many Cubans were admitted to US (largest number settled in southern Florida where they have succeeded) |
| Under Fidel Castro's leadership... | Cuban gov. took control of privately owned banks/factories/farms and jailed political opponents of the gov. |
| When/why did a second flood of Cuban emigrants go to US in 1980? | Fidel Castro suddenly decided to permit political prisoners/criminals/mental patients to leave the country= Many left to seek political asylum in US (a migration stream that became known as the MARIEL BOATLIFT) |
| Mariel Boatlift | Name given to migrational stream of Cubans seeking political asylum in US= Named for the port from which the Cubans were allowed to embark= To reach US, most crossed 125 mile Straits of Florida in small boats (many were weak and capsized)= When Cubans already living in Florida learned about Castro's new policies, many sailed from US to Cuba, found their relatives, and returned to Florida with them |
| US response to 2nd wave of Cuban refugees | US officials unprepared for sudden influx= Most Cubans were processed at Key West, Florida, and transferred to camps= Officials found families/social service agencies willing to sponsor the refugees= Sponsors were expected to provide food/shelter and help the people secure jobs= Many refugees quickly found sponsors but those who didn't lived in army camps/temporary settlements |
| Result of 2nd Cuban influx | 1987, US agreed to permit 20,000 Cubans per year to migrate to US and Cuba agreed to the return of 2,500 criminals/mental patients who came in 1980 Mariel boatlift |
| Why did many Haitians sail in small vessels for the US after the 1980 Mariel Boatlift from Cuba? | Under dictatorship of Francois Duvalier (Papa Doc) and son Jean-Claude Duvalier (Baby Doc) the Haitian gov. persecuted its political opponents like the Cubans did= US gov., however, drew a distinction between the governments of the 2 Caribbean countries since Castro was an ally of the Soviet Union |
| US response to Haitian refugees/migrants and Haitian response to US response | Claimed that they migrated for $ advancement an no political asylum= Thus US immigration officials would NOT let the Haitians aboard the bats stay in US= However, Haitians sewed US gov. saying that if Cubans were admitted, they should be too (case was settled with US agreeing to admit Haitians) |
| 1991 Haitian coup | Replaced Haiti's elected president (Jean-Bertrand Aristide) with military leaders= Many fled and headed to US Guantanamo Bay naval base in southeastern Cuba (100 miles across the WIndward Passage from Haiti)= Once at Guantanamo, Haitians could apply as refugees for migration to US mainland (also, Haitians picked up by US Coast Guard from boats drifting in the WIndward Passage were eligible to claim political asylum in US) |
| Result/Response to 1991 Haitian refugees | US Immigration officials recognized claim of political persecution made by Haitians but US State Department decided that most left Haiti for economic and not political reasons |
| What was US and UN response to 1991 Haitian coup? Result | US invaded Haiti in 1994 to reinstate Aristide as president and UN peacekeeping force was later sent to ensure democratic elections= RESULT: Although political persecution had subsided, many Haitians still try to migrate to US (reinforcing view that economic factors may always have been important in emigration from the Western Hemisphere's poorest country) |
| Emigrants from Vietnam following end of Vietnam War | War ended when Communist controlled North Vietnam captured South Vietnam's capital city of Saigon= US had supported gov. of South Vietnam and evacuated from Saigon many people who had been closely identified with the American position during the war and who were thus vulnerable to persecution after the Communist victory |
| Boat People | Name given to those pro-US Southern Vietnamese who were not politically important enough to be evacuated by US militia who tried to leave by boat (since fleeing overland to neighboring Cambodia/China/Laos was not attractive because of Communist domination/political unrest in those countries)= They drifted into the South China Sea hoping to be saved by US Navy |
| US Naval Officers reaction to the Boat People | Wanted to save them but hesitated because of US law (once taken on board, the boat people would technically be on US territory and could apply for admission to the US as refugees)= This would be unfair to the others who were waiting for the US gov. to consider their claims for admission as refugees= Thus, some boat people were not allowed to board navy ships |
| Second Surge of Vietnamese boat people in 1980s | Their most popular destinations were Malaysia, Hong Kong, and Thailand whit smaller # sailing to Indonesia, Philippines, and Singapore= As memories of Vietnam War faded, these countries no longer considered boat people as refugees (except for a few who could prove that they had been victims of specific incidents of political persecution)= Thailand particularly pushed Vietnamese boats back out to sea |
| What happened to most of the Vietnamese boat people who were judged refugees? | According to an international agreement, most were transferred to other places (especially the US, Canada, Australia, France) |
| What happened to most of the Vietnamese boat people who were judged economic migrants? | (Majority of boat people were considered economic migrants) Were placed in detention camps surrounded by barbed wire and patrolled by armed soldiers (camps later closed in 1996 and the remaining boat people were sent back to Vietnam) |
| Push and Pull factors for immigrants migrating to US | Pull of economic opportunity in the US is a greater incentive than the push of political persecution |
| For immigrants, does admission to another country end their problems? | No= Citizens of host country may dislike newcomers' cultural differences= Politicians also exploit immigrants as scapegoats for local economic problems |
| American attitude/opinion of immigrants in 19th century | Always regarded them with suspicion but controlled dislike since they helped to settle the frontier and extend US's control across the continent (EX: European immigrants converted the forests and prairies of the vast North American interior into productive farms) |
| American attitude/opinion of immigrants in 20th century | Most Americans believed that frontier had closed and the gates to the US therefore partially closed also |
| When did opposition to immigration increase? | When majority of immigrants ceased to come from Northern and Western Europe |
| German and Irish immigrants in the 19th century... | Suffered some prejudice from so-called "Native Americans" (who had in reality arrived only a few years earlier from Britain) |
| Italians, Russians, Poles, and other Southern and Eastern Europeans who poured into the US in 1900... | Faced much more hostility than northern/western Europeans |
| Government study in 1911 on immigrants to US | Study reflected popular attitudes when it concluded that immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe were racially inferior, "inclined toward violent crime," resisten assimilation, and "drove old-stock citizens out of some lines of work" |
| What changes with respect to racism, prejudice, fear of unknown groups, etc.? | There is nothing new about racism, prejudice, etc. but only the players on the stage change |
| Recently, hostile citizens in California and other states toward immigrants voted to... | Deny undocumented immigrants access to most public services (like schools, day-care centers, health clinics)= Laws have been hard to enforce and are doubtfully constitutional= Their enactment reflects unwillingness of Americans to help needy immigrants |
| Attitudes and treatment of guest workers in Europe | Suffer from poor social conditions |
| Describe the guest worker | Typically a man who arrives alone in a city= Has little money for food/housing/entertainment because his primary objective is to send hom as much money as possible (likely to use any surplus money for a railway ticket home for the weekend)= Far from friends/family and can lead a lonely life= Isolation is increased by being unfamiliar with the host country's language/distinctive cultural activities= Many spend leisure time at local railway station (where they can buy native language newspapers, mingle with other guest workers, and meet people who have just arrived by train from home) |
| Both guest workers and their host countries agree that... | The arrangement is temporary= In reality, many guest workers actually stay forever especially if they are joined by other family members |
| Some guest workers apply their savings to what? Why is this important in Europe | Starting a grocery store, restaurant, or other small shop= These businesses can fill a need in European cities by remaining open on weekends and evenings when most locally owned establishments are closed |
| Western European opinion of guest workers | Dislike them and oppose government programs to improve their conditions= Political parties that support restrictions on immigration have gained support in France, Germany, and other European countries and attacks by local citizens on immigrants have increased |
| Middle East opinion of guest workers | Petroleum-exporting countries fear that the growing # of guest workers will spark political unrest and abandonment of traditional Islamic customs |
| What happened to guest workers following the 1991 Gulf War? | Kuwaiti officials expelled many Palestinian guest workers who had sympathized with Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in 1990 |
| What have other host countries in the Middle East done to minimize long-term stays of migrant workers? | Force migrants to return home if they wish to marry and prevent them from returning once they have wives and children |
| What has enabled Middle Eastern and Western European countries to reduce their # of guest workers recently? | Lower economic growth rates= Many Western European governments pay guest workers to return home but some of countries have own unemployment problems and sometimes refuse to take back own nationals |
| How has migration by Asians a long time ago producing problems in many countries? | Between 1879 and 1920, British brought Indians as indentured laborers to the Fiji Islands in the South Pacific= Fiji presently includes more Indians than native Fijians= For long time, Fiji was model of how 2 culturally diverse groups could live together peacefully under a democratically elected government= Indians controlled most of country's businesses while Fijians dominated the gov. and army= However, after an Indian party won elections in 1987, rioting broke out between the 2 groups and Fijian army officers took temporary control of the gov.= New constitution in 1990 ensured that Fijians would hold a majority of seats in the parliament |
| What is the argument made by anti-immigrant politicians? | (Argument is seductive to many voters in Western Europe and US) If all immigrants were thrown out of country, then unemployment rate would drop, and if all immigrants were cut off from public programs, then taxes would drop |
| Internal vs. International Migration | Internal migration is less disruptive= International migration involves movement to a country with different cultural traditions (i.e. language/religion)= Migration among culturally similar countries can be disorienting in less profound ways (i.e. major sports/popular tv shows) |
| 2 main types of internal migration | Interregional and intraregional |
| Principal type of interregional migration is... | Between rural and urban areas |
| Principal type of intraregional migration is... | From older cities to suburbs (many more people move within the same region than they do from region to region) |
| Interregional Migration: US | Happened more in past when most people were farmers= Lack of farmland pushed many people from the more densely settled regions of the country and lured them to the frontier where land was abundant |
| Today, most people move to new regions... | For better jobs (some move for noneconomic reasons) |
| What is the most famous example of large-scale internal migration? | The opening of the American West= US once consisted of collection of settlements concentrated on the Atlantic Coast but through mass interregional migration, the interior of the continent was settled and developed |
| US Census Bureau | Computes the country's population center at the time of each census |
| Population Center | Is the average location of everyone in the country (the center of population gravity [if US was flat plane on top of a pin and all people weighed the same, population center is spot where population distribution causes the flat plane to balance on the pin]) |
| The changing location of the population center graphically shows... | March of the American people across North American continent over past 200 years= When first US census was taken [1790] the population center was located in the Chesapeake Bay= Throughout Colonial period, population center remained in same place= This location reflects fact that all settlements were near the Atlantic Coast |
| Why did few colonists venture far from coastal locations? | They depended on shipping links with Europe to get products and to export raw materials= Settlement in interior was also hindered by the Appalachian Mountains (blocked western development because of their steep slopes, thick forests, and few gaps that allowed easy passage [hostile Indians also hindered western settlement]) |
| By 1830, where did the center of population move to? Why? | (Interior settlement began after 1790) Moved west of Moorefield, West Virginia= Motivated by opportunity to get much land at low cost, people moved into river valleys and fertile level lowlands as far west as the Mississippi River |
| Transportation and interior settlement/development | Transportation improvements helped open interior in 1800s especially the building of canals |
| Erie Canal | Enabled people to travel cheaply by boat between NY City and Great Lakes= Opened in 1825 and fare from NY to Detroit was only $10= However, traffic was so ban on canal that tolls paid for construction costs within 9 years= Diffusion of steam-powered boats further speeded water travel |
| Where did the US population center move to after 1830? | Moved west more rapidly to just west of Cincinnati, Ohio in 1880= Population center moved 7 miles per year during that period compared to only 4 miles per year during the previous 40 years= Population center moved west quickly because most western pioneers during mid-19th century passed through the interior of the country on their way to California |
| Describe the continuous westward advance of settlement during the 19th century | Stopped at the 98th meridian= Many migrants passed through interior without stopping, in part because they were pulled to California (especially by Gold Rush starting in late 1840s)= Also, the interior confronted early settlers with a physical environment that was unsuited to familiar agricultural practices |
| Early 19th century Americans preferred to start farms in... | Forested areas that got 40 inches or more rain a year= They cut down tress and used the wood to build homes/barns/fences= When they crossed west of 98th meridian, there was few trees and huge grasslands that averaged less than 20 inches of rain a year |
| Reaction to interior's dry and treeless landscape | Without technology to overcome dry climate, lack of trees, and tough grassland sod, early explorers (like Zebulon Pike) declared region unfit for farming= Maps labeled region west of 98th meridian as the Great American Desert (however, with today's agricultural practices, the region west of the 98th meridian to the Rocky Mountains [i.e. Great Plains] is one of world's richest farming areas) |
| US Population Center after 1880 | Continued to migrate westward at a much slower pace (moved 3 miles per year between 1880 and 1950 [less than 1/2 rate of previous 1/2 century]) |
| Why did westward movement of the US population center slow after 1880? | Because large-scale migration to East Coast from Europe offset some of migration from East Coast to US West= Also slowed because people began to fill in the area between the 98th meridian and California that earlier generations bypassed |
| What enabled cultivation of the Great Plains? | Advances in agricultural technology= Farmers used barbed wire to reduce dependence on wood fencing, the steel plow to cut the thick sod, and windmills/well-drilling equipment to pump more water |
| Railroads and western settlement | Expansion of railroads encouraged western settlement beginning in 1840s= By 1880s, extensive rail system allowed settlers on Great Plains to transport their products to the large concentrations of customers in East Coast cities= Railroad companies promoted western settlement by selling land to farmers= Companies that built the railroad lines got large land grants from fed. gov. and the railroad companies, in turn, financed construction of the lines by selling small parcels of the adjacent land to farmers= Rail companies established offices in major East Coast and European cities to sell land |
| Population center from 1950 to 1980? 2000? | Moved west faster at 6 miles per year= 1980 population center, for first time in US history, jumped west of Mississippi River= 2000, center had migrated west of Mississippi River into south-central Missouri's Phelps County |
| Why did population center drift southward during late 20th century? | Because of net migration into southern states= During 1980-90s, 5 million people a year moved into South from Northeast/Midwest/West compared to only 2 million who moved out of the South |
| Why did people move to the South? | Job opportunities (since 1960, south has had the biggest average in new jobs created)= People also migrated to the South for environmental reasons (South is referred to as the "sunbelt")= As people get more leisure time, they are attracted to the sunbelt for outdoor recreation throughout the year |
| Southern environment VS Northern environment | South called "Sunbelt" because of its temperate climate while the Northeast and Midwest are called the "Rustbelt" because of the regions' dependency on declining steel and other manufacturing industries (as well as the ability of the regions' climate to rust out cars quickly) |
| Result of the rapid growth in population and employment of the South | Aggravated interregional antagonism= Some in Northeast/Midwest believe that southern states have stolen industries from them (in reality, some industries have relocated from the Northeast and Midwest but most of the South's industrial growth comes from newly made companies) |
| In what way has the regional difference in economic growth between South and rest of country reduced a historical imbalance? | In past, people in Northeast enjoyed higher income than people in South= Average incomes in south are currently 1/5 lower than those in the Northeast (however, in 1960, average incomes were 1/3 lower in South than in Northeast and in 1929, the beginning of the Great Depression, average incomes were 2/3 lower in the south) |
| Describe net migration pattern of African Americans in the US | Most blacks lived in South (because ancestors had been forced to region from Africa)= During 20th century, many migrated from South to take jobs in large cities of Northeast/Midwest/West= During 1990s, blacks migrated from North to South and from South to North in equal numbers while North to South migration was much higher for whites= (other interregional migration patters for blacks and Hispanics now differ little from those of whites) |
| US interregional migration in the 21st century | Has slowed down a lot= Net migration between each pair of regions is now close to zero |
| US regional differences in employment prospects in 21st century | Have become less dramatic= Most new jobs are in the service sector of the economy and thus jobs are expanding and contracting at similar rates around the country |
| As in the US, long-distance interregional migration has been an important means of... | Opening new regions for economic development in other large countries= Incentives have been used to stimulate migration to other regions |
| Russia: Interregional Migration | Important in developing Soviet Union= Soviet policy encouraged factory construction near raw materials rather than near existing population concentrations= Not enough workers lived nearby to fill all jobs at the mines/factories/construction sites made in these remote/resource-rich regions= Soviet gov. stimulated interregional migration to build up adequate labor force |
| What part of Russia were Soviet officials eager to develop through interregional migration? What did they do? | Russia's Far North (included much of Siberia) because it is rich in natural resources (fossil fuels/minerals/forests)= Far North encompassed 45% of Soviet Union's land area but contained less than 2% of its people= Soviet gov. forced people to migrate to Far North to build/operate steel mills, mines, etc.= Soviet gov. later reduced use of forced migration and instead provided incentives (including higher wages, more paid holidays, earlier retirement) to induce voluntary migration to the Far North |
| Result of incentives used by soviets to pull migrants to Far North | Did not pull as many as desired because people were hesitant to move because of the region's harsh climate and remoteness from population clusters= Each year, 1/2 of the people in the Fart North migrated back to other regions of the country and had to be replaced by other immigrants (especially young males willing to work in the region for a short period) |
| Komsomol | Name of the brigade of young volunteers the Soviet gov. sent up to the Far North (to replace those who were migration out of the region) during school vacations to help construct projects |
| What happened to the policies that encouraged interregional migration when the Soviet Union collapsed? | The policies ended= In transition to market-based economy, Russian gov. officials no longer dictate "optimal" locations for factories |
| Brazil: Interregional Migration | Most Brazilians live in a string of large cities near Atlantic Coast= Sao Paulo and Rio de Janeiro have become 2 of world's largest cities= However, Brazil's tropical interior is very sparsely inhabited (thus encourages interregional migration) |
| How has Brazilian government increased attractiveness of the country's interior? | Gov. has moved its capital in 1960 from Rio to newly built city called Brasilia (600 miles from the Atlantic Coast)= From above, Brasilia's design resembles an airplane with gov. buildings located at center of city and housing arranged along the "wings" |
| Result of Brazilian government building Brasilia | At first, Brasilia's population grew slowly since gov. workers and foreign embassy officials resented the forced move from Rio (one of world's most animated cities)= Recently, many have migrated to Brasilia in search of jobs (many of these workers could not afford housing in Brasilia and were living instead in quickly build shacks on the outskirts of the city |
| In a country with rapid population growth, many people will migrate... | Where they think they can find employment |
| Indonesia: Interregional Migration | Since 1969, Indonesian gov. has paid for migration of more than 5 million people (primarily from island of Java where 2/3 of its people live) to less populated islands= Under gov. program, families received 5 acres of land (2 hectares), materials to build a house, seeds and pesticides, food to carry them over until the crops are ready |
| Describe the result/response to the interregional migration gov. program | Number of participants has declined recently mainly because of environmental concerns= Some families moved to land that could not support intensive agriculture while others disrupted the habitats of indigenous peoples= Program siphoned off very small % of Java's population growth during past 1/4 century |
| Where is the pattern of interregional migration throughout Western Europe reflected? | In differences in per capita income and unemployment in different regions= The regions with net immigration are also the ones with the highest per capita incomes |
| Describe interregional migration trends of European countries that occupy small land areas. Example | They have important interregional migration trends= People in Italy migrate from the south (known as the "Mezzogiorno") to the north in search of job opportunities |
| Italy's Mezzogiorno region VS Italy's north | North benefits from rich agricultural land and strong industrial base= Mezzogiorno comprises 40% of Italy's land area and contains 35% of population but only 24$ of national income= Per capita income is 2 times as high in north than in south and unemployment rates are less than 5% in north compared to more than 20% in south |
| Why are people in the United Kingdom migrating? | Because of regional differences in job opportunities (although the pattern is opposite of Italy's [economic growth is in the south while north is declining]) |
| Northern VS Southern regions of the United Kingdom | First in world to enter industrial revolution in 18th century= Today many of the region's industries are no longer competitive in the global economy= However, industries in the south and east (especially the region around London) are relatively healthy |
| How might regional differences in economic conditions within European countries become greater? What regions may hold a competitive advantage and over whom? | With increased integration of the continent's economy= Regions closer to European markets (such as the south of Britain and the north of Italy) may hold a competitive advantage over outside regions |
| India: Interregional Migration | Government limits ability of people to migrate from one region to another by requiring Indians to have a permit to migrate (or even visit) the State of Assam in the northeastern part of the country= The restrictions (dating back to British colonial era) are meant to protect the ethnic identity of Assamese by limiting the ability of outsiders to compete for jobs and purchase land (because Assam is situated on border with Bangladesh, the restrictions also limit international migration) |
| Since 1800, the most prominent type of intraregional migration in the world has been from... | Rural to urban areas= Less than 5% of world's people lived in urban areas in 1800 compared to 1/2 today |
| Urbanization | Began in 1800s in countries of Europe and North America (which were undergoing rapid industrial development)= % of people living in urban areas in US increased from 5% in 1800 to 50% in 1920= Today, 3/4 of people in US and other/more developed countries live in urban areas |
| Where has migration from rural to urban areas recently skyrocketed? | Skyrocketed in recent years in less developed countries of Africa, Asia, and Latin America |
| Migration from rural areas accounts for what? | Nearly 1/2 of the population increase in urban areas and the natural increase (excess of births over deaths) accounts for remainder |
| Describe the migration to Sao Paulo, Brazil (one of world's largest cities) in recent years | Migration has reached 300,000 people per year= Many of these migrants can not find housing in the city and must live in squatter settlements |
| Favelas | Brazilian name given to the squatter settlements that migrants, who can't find housing in Sao Paulo, must live in= They lack electricity/running water/paved streets |
| Why do most people move from rural to urban areas? | (Like interregional migrants) They seek economic advancement= They are pushed from rural areas by declining opportunities in agriculture and are pulled to the cities by the prospect of work in factories or in service industries |
| Describe intraregional migration in more developed countries. Example | Is from central cities out to the suburbs= Twice as many Americans migrate from central cities to suburbs each year than migrate from suburbs to central cities |
| Describe the population of most central cities in North America and Western Europe | Has declined in central cities while suburbs have grown rapidly |
| What is the major reason for the large-scale migration to the suburbs? | (Is not related to employment) For most people, migration to suburbs does not coincide with changing jobs= People are pulled by a suburbian lifestyle |
| What do suburbs offer? | The opportunity to live in a detached house rather than an apartment surrounded, surrounded by a private yard where children can play safely= A garage/driveway on the property guarantees space to park automobiles at no charge= Suburban schools tend to be more modern, better equipped, and safer than those in cities= Cars/trains allow people to live in suburbs yet have access to jobs/shops/recreational facilities throughout the urban area |
| Result of suburbanization | Territory occupied by urban areas has rapidly expanded= To accommodate suburban growth, farms on the outside of urban areas are converted to housing developments where new roads and other services must be built |
| Counterurbanization | Net migration from urban to rural areas= First witnessed by more developed countries of North America and Western Europe during late 20th century when they saw that more people in these regions were immigrating into rural areas than emigrating out of them= Can easily be seen in US |
| Counterurbanization results from what? | Very rapid expansion of suburbs= Boundary where suburbs end and countryside begins can not be precisely defined |
| Most counterurbanization represents what? | Migration from cities and suburbs to small towns and rural communities |
| Why do people move from urban to rural areas? | For lifestyle reasons (just like suburbanization)= People are lured to rural areas by idea of swapping the fast pace of urban life for opportunity to live on farm where they can own horses/grow vegetables= However, most people who move to farms do not earn their living from agriculture (instead work in nearby factories, small town shops, or other services) |
| What countries have net immigration in the US? | Nonmetropolitan countries in Northeast, South, Midwest, and West |
| Is any location in a more developed country truly isolated, either economically or socially? Why or why not? | No because of modern communications and transportation systems= Computers allow us to work anywhere and still have access to an international network |
| Who are many of the migrants from urban to rural areas? | Retired people who are attracted by access to leisure activities (e.g. fishing/hiking) |
| Describe retirement communities. Who do they appeal to? | Are small towns restricted to older people (typically over age 50)= They appeal to retired people who like to participate in recreational activities |
| Where do older people migrate to/from in France? | Some migrate from Paris to rural villages where they were born while others are attracted to the mild climate in the south of the country along the Mediterranean coast |
| Counterurbanization in present day US | Has stopped because the same # of people migrate from metropolitan to nonmetropolitan areas as from nonmetropolitan to metropolitan areas |
| Modest levels of in-migration into rural areas in US have... | Been offset by strong out-migration from rural areas= The economy of this region has been hurt by poor agricultural conditions (thus price of farm products has declined and many farmers have gone bankrupt) |
| Can future migration trends in more developed countries be predicted? Why or why not? | No because future economic conditions of these countries are difficult to forecast |
