| A | B |
|---|
| AARP | (Once called American Association of Retired Persons) Led the lobbyists for senior citizens= Wanted to add prescription drug benefit to Medicare program (which most seniors depend on for health care)= Congress opposed (cost much $)= Pharmaceutical industry feared that a Medicare prescription plan would open way for gov. regulation of drug prices/industry |
| Pharmaceutical Research and Manufactures of America | (PhRMA) Political arm of pharmaceutical industry and caused the industry to be one of most powerful lobbies in Washington= Drug industry's political power was major impediment to enactment of Medicare prescription drug plan |
| Campaign Funds | Drug-company executives and corporate political action committees have contributed $100 million to political campaigns since 2000= Many drug-industry lobbyists/executives were major donors/fund-raisers for G.W. Bush pres. campaign |
| PhRMA: Economic/Political Problems | High prices charged for prescription drugs were producing large pressure in Congress to reduce patent protection enjoyed by drug-company products in order to allow cheaper generic drugs to enter the marketplace more rapidly= Also, many consumers discovered that they could purchase drugs in Canada/Europe for 75% less than US cost (these foreign purchases, while illegal, are difficult to monitor and are costing drug companies much $ in profit)= Also, many senior citizens were not able to afford their prescription drugs at all and so were simply not buying medicine (caused loss in profit) |
| PhRMA: Reaction to problems | Changed its lobbying strategy= Stopped resisting Medicare drug plan and moved to craft plan of its own= Formed alliance with many health-industry groups (including nursing home and hospital interests) to develop new Medicare bill |
| AARP= Reaction to PhRMA new lobbying strategy | Had many problems with bill but still supported= Calculated that once a law was enacted, the senior lobby could secure favorable amendments over the ensuing years |
| New Medicare drug plan legislation | enacted by Congress in November 2003= Drug industry spent $40 million lobbying on its behalf= Appeared to fit industry's needs= Under plan, Medicare subsidizes drug purchases for all seniors who agree to pay a modest monthly fee= Plan prohibits gov. from attempting to force the companies to lower drug prices, leaves in place the ban on imported drugs, and does not address the issue of generic drugs |
| Medicare Prescription Plan: Result | (Began operation in 2006) Helped boost industry profits at a cost of many billions of $ annually to federal treasury= PhRMA's nursing home and hospital allies also won favorable treatment under the plan= Seniors got their drug plan but in a form that cost the nation much $ in funds that are being transfered from middle-class taxpayers to coffers of a wealthy industry |
| Medicare Prescription Plan: Democrats reaction after 2006 | (2006 elections gave Dems. control of both houses of Congress) Promised to take new look at prescription drug plan= Talked about undoing provisions of law that ban imported drugs and prohibit the gov. from attempting to lower drug prices= Some Dems. said drug industry should be forced to give up some of its patent protection to allow more generics to enter the marketplace |
| Medicare Prescription Plan: PhRMA's Reaction to Democrat's reaction | Hired many Democratic lobbyists (Bill Clinton) |
| Pharmaceutical Industry: How does it illustrate principles of politics | Pharmaceutical manufacturers and other interests engage ini political action for very definite purposes (industry was aware of its economic interests and based its support for/opposition to particular pieces of legislation on its calcualtion of the economic gain it was likely to reap)= Also, firms and interests banded together and engaged in collective effort to influence Congress/President in order to achieve political purposes (members negotiated with one another to identify a policy approach on which they could all agree and then sought to bring enactment of legislation that reflected approach)= Also, control of key policy-making institutions was important (pharmaceutical industry had devoted much effort to building ties to Republican leadership of Congress= When Dems. ousted GOP in 2006, industry quickly cultivated a relationship with new leaders of America's premier lawmaking institution)= Also, history matters (In US, gov. control of manufacture/distribution/pricing of products is historically viewed negatively= This bias against gov. interference in marketplace gave manufacturers advantage in arguing against gov. efforts to lower prices of drugs it was purchasing for Medicare recipients) |
| Interest Group | Organized group of people/organizations that makes policy-related appeals to gov.= Individuals form groups and engage in collective action to increase the chance that their views will be heard and their interests treated well favorably by gov.= Interest groups are organized to influence governmental decisions= Sometimes referred to as LOBBIES |
| Difference between Political Action Committees and Interest Groups | PACs focus on winning elections and interest groups focus on influencing elected officials |
| Difference between Interest Groups and Political Parties | Interest groups concern themselves with policies of government= Parties concern themselves with the members of government |
| US Interests Groups | Many exist and many Americans are members of one or more groups (at least to extent of paying dues or attending an occasional meeting)= By representing the interests of such large # of people and encouraging political participation, organized groups can and do enhance American democracy |
| Organized Interest Groups | (Promote democratic politics) Educate their members about issues that affect them= Groups lobby members of Congress and the executive branch, engage in litigation, and represent their members' interests in the political arena= Groups mobilize members for elections and prassroots lobbying efforts (thus encouraging participation) |
| Why do interest groups monitor government programs? | Make sure that they do not adversely affect their members |
| Founding Fathers: Opinions about interest groups | Feared power that could be held by organized interests= Founders still believed that interest groups thrived because of freedom (the freedom for all Americans to organize and express their views) |
| Founding Fathers: Why did they see problem with freedom for all to organize/express their views? Solution? | If gov. were given power to regulate/forbid efforts by organized interests to intefere in political process, it would have power to suppress freedom= Madison solved problem |
| Madison's solution to freedom to organize/express views | Madisonian Theory said a good constitution encourages multitudes of interests so that no single interest can ever tyrannize the others= Assumes that competition among interests will produce balance and compromise with all the interesets regulating one another |
| Pluralism | (Is name for the Madisonian principle of regulation) All interests are/should be free to compete for influence in the US |
| According to pluralist doctrine, what is the outcome of competition | Compromise and moderation because no group is likely to be able to achieve any of its goals without accommodating itself to some of the views of its many competitors |
| Organized Groups: Influence | Are many organized groups but large number of interest groups competing for influence doesn't mean that all interests are fully/equally represented in American political process |
| Which interests are favored? | Interests able to organize and wield substantial economic/social/institutional resources on behalf of their cause |
| Within world of interest-group politics, what prevails? | Political power (not some abstract idea of the public good)= Means that interest-group politics is a political format that works more to the advantage of some types of interests than others |
| A politics in which interest groups predominate is... | A politics with a distinctly upper-class bias |
| What is one of the main purposes for which people/groups engage in political action | Economic interest |
| Who support interest groups | Groups of producers/manufaturers in a particular economic sector (EX: National Federation of Independent Business [represents small business owners], etc.) |
| When do specific companies (as opposed to broad representative groups) support interest groups | May be active on certain issues that are of particular concern to them (EX: Disney, etc.) |
| Labor Organizations | AFL-CIO, United Mine Workers, and International Brotherhood of Teamsters all lobby on behalf of organized labor= Recently, lobbies have arisen to further the interests of public employees (most significant is the American Federation of State, County, and Municipal Employees) |
| Professional Lobbies | (EX: American Bar Association, American Medical Association) Have been successful in furthering interests in state/federal legislatures |
| Financial Institutions | Represented by organizations (like American Bankers Association and America's Community Bankers)= Are less visible than other lobbies= Important in shaping legislative policy |
| Public Interest Lobby | (EX: Natural Resources Defense Council, Union of Concerned Scientists, Common Cause) Powerful lobby that has grown recently= Represents interests whose concerns are not addressed by traditional lobbies= Most visible in consumer protection/environmental policy areas |
| Public-Sector Lobby | (EX: National League of Cities, The Research Lobby) Generated by the perceived need for rep. on Capitol Hill |
| The Research Lobby | Comprises universities and think tanks (e.g. Harvard University, Brookings Institution, American Enterprise Institute) that have an interest in obtaining gov. funds for research and support |
| Interest Groups: Similarities | Most groups must attract/keep members= Every group must build a financial structure capable of sustaining an organization and funding the group's activities= Most groups include an agency that actually carries out the group's tasks (e.g. can be a research organization, public relations office, lobbying office in Washington/state capitol) |
| Groups appeal to members not only by promoting political goals/policies that they favor but also by... | Providing them with direct economic/social benefits (EX: AARP) |
| AARP | Promotes interests of senior citizens AND also offers members many insurance benefits and commercial discounts |
| Groups whose goals are chiefly $ or political also seek to attract members through... | Social interaction and good fellowship= Therefore, the local chapters of many national groups provide their members with a congenial social environment while collecting dues that finance the national office's political efforts |
| How do groups build financial support? | (Ease at getting $ varies) Most interest groups rely on yearly membership dues and voluntary contributions from sympathizers= Many also sell members some ancillary services (e.g. insurance/vacation tours) |
| Interest Groups: Membership | Interest-group politics has an extreme upper-class bias= Membership in interest groups is not randomly distributed= People with higher incomes, higher levels of education, and management/professional occupations are more likely to become members of groups than are those who occupy the lower rungs on the socioeconomic ladder |
| Well-educated upper-income business/professional people are more likely to... | Have the time and $ and, through the educational process, the concerns/skills needed to play a role in a group/association |
| For business and professional people, group membership may provide... | Personal contracts and access to information that can help advance their careers= Corporate entities (i.e. businesses) usually have ample resources to form/participate in groups that seek to advance their causes |
| Describe: Interest Groups and Political Associations that have a working-class or lower-class membership | Are many of these interest groups (EX: Labor Organizations, Welfare-Rights Organizations)= Still, the majority of interest groups and their members are drawn from the middle/upper-middle classes |
| The "interests" served by interest groups are the interests of... | Society's haves |
| When interest groups take opposing positions on issues and policies, the conflicting positions reflect... | The divisions among upper-income strata rather than conflicts between upper and lower classes |
| How to get adequate political representation | Forces from bottom rungs of socioeconomic ladder must be organized on massive scale associated with political parties |
| Parties vs. Interest Groups | Parties can organize/mobilize collective energies of many people who may have very limited resources= Interest groups organize smaller numbers of the better-to-do |
| Result of the importance of political parties and interest groups | Effects the distribution of political power in the US |
| Parties vs. Interest Groups= Power/Influence | Political parties have declined in influence recently= Interest groups have become more numerous/active/influential |
| Interest groups will expand if... | Government expands |
| Why did the national government grow in 1880-90s | Due to first government efforts at economic intervention to fight large monopolies and regulate aspects of interstate commerce |
| Result of government growth in 1880-90 | Interest groups grew such as National Association of Manufacturers and many other trade associations= Many groups also organized around specific agricultural commodities= This period marked beginning of expansion of trade unions as interest groups |
| Interest Groups: 1930s | Interest groups with headquarters/representation in Washington grew (due to expansion of national government) |
| Interest Group: Recent Growth | Past 40 years, big increase in both the # of interest groups seeking to play role in political process and in the extent of their opportunity to influence that process (tot. # of groups is unknown) |
| How could we tell that interest groups have grown recently? | The growth over time in the number of PACS attempting to influence US elections |
| Describe Gov. in 1970s and result | Expanded federal regulation of cars/oil/gas/education/healthcare industries impelled each of these interests to increase efforts to influence gov.'s behavior= These efforts caused creation of other groups to augment/counter activities of the first |
| Federal Social Programs: What does it cause | Political organization and action on part of clientele groups seeking to influence distribution of benefits and the organization of groups opposed to the programs or their cost (EX: Federal programs/court decisions in areas like abortion/school prayer motivated political action/organization by fundamentalist religious groups [e.g. Christian Coalition of America, Family Research Council, Traditional Values Coalition, Focus on the Family, Christian Voice])= Struggles over issues like gay marriage and abortion has helped these groups expand membership roles and build a network of state/local chapters |
| Faith-Based Initiative | (Passed by Bush in response to help he got from religious conservatives in 2000/2004 presidential elections) Federal grants/contracts were given to religious organizations to provide social services to children/seniors/etc.= By using "Faith-Based Groups" as federal contractors, Bush wanted to reward religious conservatives for loyalty to GOP and ensure that these groups have continuing stake in Republican success |
| The New Politics Movement | (Was a new set of forces in US politics) Another factor accounting for explosion of interest-group activity in recent years= Movement made up of upper-middle-class professionals and intellectuals for whom the civil rights/antiwar movements were formative experiences (just like Great Depression and WWII were for their parents) |
| The crusade against racial discrimination and Vietnam War caused what (in terms of the New Politics Movement) | Caused the current members of the New Politics Movement (when they were young) to see themselves as political force in opposition to the public policies and politicians associated with nation's postwar regime |
| Forces of new politics have recently focused attention on issues like... | Environmental protection, women's rights, and nuclear disarmament |
| Members of the new politics movement constructed/strengthened... | Public interest groups such as Common Cause, Sierra Club, Environmental Defense Fund, Physicians for Social REsponsibility, National Organization for Women, and other Ralph Nader formed organizations |
| Result of members of new politics movement creating/strengthening public interest groups | Through these groups, able to influence media, Congress, judiciary= Successful in 1960-70s in securing the enactment of policies they favored |
| What type of legislation are the New Politics Activists responsible for? | Securing the enactment of environmental, consumer, and occupational health/safety legislation |
| Technology | Factor contributing to rise/success of new politics forces= 1970-80s, computerized direct-mail campaigns allowed public interest groups to reach many potential sympathizers/contributors (today, internet/e-mail serve same function) |
| Electronic Communication | Allows small groups to efficiently identify/mobilize their adherents throughout the nation= People with opinions that might be in minority everywhere can become conscious of one another and mobilize for national political action through electronic politics |
| How can the Internet cause group formation and political action | By uniting people through internet and then sending many e-mails to politicians= Thus overcomes the limitations of geography/numbers |
| Pluralist Theory | (Evidence for theory is weak) Because individuals in US are free to join/form groups that reflect common interests, interest groups should easily form whenever a change in the political environment warrants their formation |
| If Pluralist Theory is correct... | Groups should form in proportion to people's interests= Should find greater number of organizations around interests shared by a greater number of people |
| Kay Schlozman and John Tierney | Examined interest groups that represent people's occupations and economic roles= Using census data/lists of interest groups, they compared how many US people ahve particular economic roles and how many organizations represent those roles in Washington= Found that there is a great disparity in Washington representation across categories of individuals in population (EX: Found that in 1980s, 4% of population was looking for work but few organizations represented the unemployed in Washington)= Found that there are at leas 12 groups representing senior citizens but none for middle-aged |
| Ducks Unlimited | Organization dedicated to preservation of ducks and their habitats= (No one, however, is working for turkeys) |
| What led to study of the dynamics of collective action? | The pluralists' inability to explain why groups form around some interests and not others |
| Mancur Olson | (1965) His work is most well-known challenge to the pluralists= His work gave basis for interest group formation= Said that the pluralist assumption of the time (that common interests among individuals are automatically transformed into group organizations and collective action) was problematic= Individuals are tempted to free ride on efforts of others, have difficulty coordinating multiple objectives, and may even have differences of opinion about which common interest to pursue (conflicts of interest) |
| Groups of individuals pursuing some common interest or shared objective consist of individuals who... | Bear some cost or make some contribution on behalf of the joint goal |
| Thinking of interest group participation as a 2 person cooperation | Each person in the group has 2 behavioral options: contribute or don't contribute to achieving the jointly shared objective= if the number of contributors to the group enterprise is sufficiently large, a group goal is achieved BUT if the goal is achieved, then every member enjoys its benefits (whether a contributor or not) |
| Prisoner's Dilemma | (Metaphor used when theorizing about social situation of collective action) According to metaphor, 2 prisoners (A and B) who are accused of jointly committing a crime are kept in separate interview rooms= The arresting officers don't have enough evidence to persuade judge to give the prisoners maximum sentence so the officers hope that one of the prisoners will provide the additional evidence needed= The prisoners know that the officers have scant evidence against them and that they will probably get a less severe sentence or escape punishment altogether if they remain silent= Each prisoner is offered same plea bargain: "Testify against the other prisoner in exchange for freedom, provided that your accomplice does not also testify against you. Remain silent, and you will possibly get the max sentence if your accomplice testifies against you" |
| Prisoner's Dilemma: What should A do? | A is better off choosing to snitch no matter what prisoner B does= Both A and B are better of snitching |
| Prisoner's Dilemma: B snitches and A snitches | Then A's choice to snitch gets A a 3 year jail term |
| Prisoner's Dilemma: B snitches and A does not snitch | Results in 6 year sentence for A |
| Prisoner's Dilemma: B does not snitch and A snitches | A gets not jail time |
| Prisoner's Dilemma: B does not snitch and A does not snitch | A gets 1 year sentence |
| Prisoner's Dilemma: If both prisoners snitch | The prosecutor is able to convict both of them and each serves 3 years |
| Prisoner's Dilemma: If both prisoners do not snitch | If they had both been IRRATIONAL and kept silent, they would have gotten only 1 year each |
| Game Theory | (From which the prisoner's dilemma is drawn) Each player has a dominant strategy (in terms of prisoner's dilemma, snitching is best no matter what the other player does)= This leads paradoxically to an outcome in which each player is worse off |
| What does the prisoner's dilemma show? | That rational individual behavior does not always lead to rational collective results= Means that, in terms of prisoner's dilemma, if A appreciates the dilemma and realizes that B appreciates the dilemma, then A will still be drawn to the choice of snitching |
| Why will A still be drawn to the choice of snitching even if he appreciates the dilemma and realizes that B appreciates the dilemma? | Reasons are the temptation to get off scot-free (if he testifies and his accomplice doesn't) and the FEAR of being suckered |
| How is free-riding a multi-person prisoner's dilemma? | (Free Riding is the problem of Collective Action) As long as enough people do a group activity, any individual can ride free on the efforts of the others= However, not providing effort, like snitching, is a DOMINANT strategy, yet if everyone does it, it leads to an unwanted outcome (i.e. the job/activity not getting done) |
| Olson: What did he say about large groups and mass collective action (like many of the antiwar demonstrations and civil rights rallies of 1960s)? | Each individual has a rational strategy of not contributing= The logic of collective action makes it difficult to induce participation in and contribution to collective goals= This difficulty is greatest in large groups |
| Why is difficulty greatest in large groups (3 reasons)? | Large groups are anonymous= In the anonymity of the large-group context, no one individual's contribution makes much difference= Problem with enforcement |
| In what way are large groups anonymous (EX: Desire to lower property taxes)? | Each household in a city is a taxpaying unit and may share the wish to see property taxes lowered= Is hard, however, to get group identity or induce households to contribute effort/activity for the cause of lower taxes on such a basis |
| In what way does 1 person's contribution in a a large group make little difference? | If senator gets 1 letter asking for decreased property tax, he will throw away letter= If senator gets tons of letters asking for lower property tax, then he will listen |
| In what way is there a problem of enforcement in large groups? | Other group members cannot prevent a slacker from receiving the benefits of collective action (should the benefits materialize)= In a large/anonymous group it is hard to know who has/hasn't contributed and because there is only the most limited sort of group identity, it is hard for contributors to identify/take action against slackers |
| Result of 3 problems of large groups | Large groups that share common interests fail to mobilize at all= They remain LATENT |
| Olson: Problems with Small Groups | Same problems that hurt large groups hurt small groups= However, small groups manage to overcome the problem of collective action more frequently and to greater extent than their larger counterparts |
| Small Groups: Describe | More personal and thus the members are more vulnerable to interpersonal persuasion= Individual contributions may make more noticeable difference (so that individuals feel that their contributions are more essential)= Contributors often know who they are and who the slackers are= Punishment for slackers ranges from subtle judgmental pressure to social ostracism is easier to effect |
| What did Olson say about Small Groups? | Said that, unlike large groups that often remain latent, small groups are PRIVILEGED because of their advantage in overcoming the free-riding, coordination, and conflict-of-interest problems of collective action= It is because of these reasons that small groups often prevail over, or enjoy greater privileges relative to, larger groups (these reasons explain why we often see producers win out over consumers, owners of capital win out over owners of labor, and a party's elite win out over its mass members) |
| Despite free-rider problem, how do interest groups get people to join? | Through many incentives= Most important is that they make many "selective benefits" available only to group members= These benefits can be informational/material/solidary/purposive |
| Informational Benefits | Most widespread/important category of selective benefits offered to group members= Information is provided through conferences, training propgrams, and newsletters and other periodicals sent automatically to those who have paid membership dues |
| Material Benefits | Include anything that can be measured monetarily (i.e. special services, goods, $)= Typically, the benefits include discount purchasing, shared advertising, and, most valuable of all, health and retirement insurance |
| Solidary Benefits | Benefits are the friendship and "newtorking" opportunities that membership provides= Another benefit, that is important to many of the newer nonprofit and citizens' groups, is consciousness-raising= Another solidary/psychological benefit has been the mainstary of the appeal of group membership to discouraged and disillusioned African Americans since their emergence as a constitutionally free and equal segment of the population |
| Examples of Consciousness-Raising | (Part of Solidary Benefits) Seen in claims of many women's organizations that say that active participation conveys to each member of the organization an enhanced sense of her own value and a stronger ability to advance individual as well as collective civil rights |
| Purposive Benefits | Benefit that emphasizes the purpose and accomplishments of the group (best seen in the benefits of religious interest groups) |
| Example of Purposive Benefits | Christian Right (is a powerful movement made up of many interest groups that offer no material benefits to their members)= The growth and success of these groups depend on the religious identification and affirmation of their members |
| In what way have religious groups (who use purposive benefits) been created at at state/local levels throughout history? | Recent abolition and prohibition movements, for example, were driven by religious interest groups whose main attractions were nonmaterial benefits |
| Sharing of a commonly developed ideology | Important nonmaterial benefit= Many of most successful interest groups of past 20 years have been citizens' groups or public interest groups whose members are brought together around shared ideological goals (including gov. reform, election/campaign reform, civil rights, economic equality, family values, opposition to gov. itself) |
| Richard Wagner | Noticed that Olson's arguments about groups and politics and his theory of selective incentives said little about the internal workings of groups= Wagner felt that groups came into being and were maintained in good working order not only because of selective incentives but also because of the extraordinary efforts of specific individuals (i.e. LEADERS, in ordinary language, or "POLITICAL ENTREPRENEURS" in Wagner's words) |
| Why did Wagner raise the issue of group leaders? | Though Olson's theory was too pessimistic= Mass organizations in real world (i.e. labor unions, consumer associations, senior citzens' groups, environmental organizations) all exist with some surviving/prospering for a long time= These organizations seem to get jump-started in the real world |
| Wagner: Selective incentive theory | Says that certain selective benefits may increase for those who organize/maintain otherwise weak/hidden groups |
| Political Entrepreneur | Someone who sees a prospective dividend from cooperation= Means that there is a latent group that, if it were to become manifest, would enjoy fruits of collective action= For a price, whether in votes, a percentage of the dividend, nonmaterial glory, or other perks, the entrepreneur bears the costs of organizing, expands effort to monitor individuals for slacker behavior, and imposes punishment on slackers (i.e. expelling them from group and denying them any of selective benefits)= Simply put, the entrepreneur monitors each team member's effort level, whipping those who shirk in their responsibilities (hardly punishes, but is just there) |
| In what way can political entrepreneurs be thought of as complements to Olsonian selective incentives? | Both provide ways of motivating groups to accomplish collective objects |
| Selective Incentives and Political Entrepreneurs= Compare with respect to paradox of collective action | Selective Incentives resolve paradox of collective action while political entrepreneurs dissolve the paradox= Both are helpful and sometimes needed to initiate/maintain collective action |
| Groups that manage to get themselves organized with a low level of activity often take next step of... | Creating leaders and leadership institutions to increase activity level and resulting cooperation dividends |
| What did Wagner do with Olson's theory of selective incentives? | Suggested alternative explanation that made room for institutional solutions to problem of collective action |
| Interest groups work to... | Improve probability that they and their policy interests will be heart/treated well by all branches/levels of government |
| Outsider Strategies | Ways of obtaining political influence/power= Include going public and using electoral politics= These strategies paint big picture of ways groups use their resources in the fierce competition for power |
| How do groups get power? Example | Mix of insider and outsider strategies= Environmental groups like Sierra Club lobby members of Congress and key congressional staff members, participate in bureaucratic rule making by offering comments/suggestions to agencies on ney environmental rules, and bring lawsuits under various environmental acts (like the Endangered Species Act [authorizes groups/citizens to come to court if they believe the act is being violated])= At same time, Sierra Club tries to influence public opinion through media campaigns and to influence electoral politics by supporting candidates who they beleive share their environmental views and by opposing candidates who they view as enemies of environmentalism |
| Lobbying | Attempt by group to influence policy process through persuasion of government officials |
| How do interests groups exert their influence? | Broad range of activities that groups engage in with all sorts of gov. officials and public |
| 1946 Federal Regulation of Lobbying Act | Defined a lobbyist as any person who works for money or any consideration for the purpose of attempting to influence the passage/defeat of any legislation of Congress of the US |
| 1995 Lobbying Disclosure Act | requires all organizations employing lobbyists to register with COngress and disclose whom they represent, whom they lobby, what they are lobbying for, and how much they are paid= More than 7,000 organizations, collectively employing many lobbyists, are registered |
| Lobbying involves much activity on part of... | Someone speaking for an interest= Lobbyists overwhelm legislators/admin/etc. with facts about important issues and facts/claims about public support of them |
| Where and how are lobbyists useful? | Serve useful purpose in the legislative/administrative process by providing info about new policies and public support for the policies |
| Importance of lobbying in government | (Said in response to bill meant to expand requirements for lobbying disclosures) Gov. without lobbying couldn't function= Flow of info to Congress/every federal agency is vital part of democratic system |
| Interests groups and the legislature | Interest groups have influence in setting legislative agenda and in helping craft the language of legislation= (Some interest groups are able to place their lobbyists directly on congressional staffs) |
| Today, how do lobbyists win influence? | By providing info about policies to busy members of Congress= "You can't get access without knowledge" |
| Recently, interest groups have begun building... | Broader coalitions and comprehensive campaigns around particular policy issues= These coalitions don't rise from grassroots but are put together by Washington lobbyists who launch comprehensive campaigns that combine simulated grassroots activity with information and campaign funding for members of Congress |
| Lobbyists in 2007 | Many experienced lobbyists and Washington insiders were borrowed by new Democratic leadership to help organize the business of new Congress |
| Stealthy Lobbyists | Those unlikely to gorget needs of the corporation(s) that they used to work for and that they are likely to return to= Not all interest groups can embed a stealth lobbyist in Congress |
| What do interest groups do if they can't put a stealth lobbyist in Congress? | They hire the spouses/relatives of members of Congress or important staffers to lobby for themCongressional Ap |
| 2006 study of the Congressional Appropriations Process | Found 30 instances where lobbyists related to members/senior staffers of the House and Senate appropriations committees sought money in the appropriation bills their family members helped to write= In 22 cases, relatives were able to get specific language inserted in bills that guaranteed money for their clients |
| Interest Groups: Relationships with Democrats and Republicans | Most interest groups try to maintain good relations with both political parties and are prepared to work with the party in power to achieve their legislative goals= For campaign contributions, corporate interests back both sides and befriend the winners |
| What happens to interests that don't engage in serious lobbying? | Are "Microsofted" |
| Microsoft | 1998, faced antitrust action from the Justice Department and had few friends in Congress= Bill tauzin (member of House) told Gates that without major investment in lobbying, corporation would continue to be "demonized"= Spent much money on team of lobbyists with strong ties to Congress= RESULT: Congressional pressure on Justice Department which resulted in settlement of Microsoft suit on terms favorable to the company |
| Wal-Mart | 1999, told by COngress that its efforts to win approval to operate savings/loans in its stores were doomed to failure if retailer didn't increase lobbying efforts |
| What services do lobbyists perform? | Provide access= Often testify on behalf of their clients at congressional committee and agency hearings= Help their clients identify potential allies with whom to construct coalitions= Provide research and info. to gov. officials= Draft proposed legislation/regulations to be introduced by friendly lawmakers= Talk to reporters, place ads in newspapers, organize letter-writing, e-mail, and telegram campaigns= Important in fund-raising by helping to direct clients' contributions to members of Congress and presidential candidates |
| Lobbying campaign targeted for the president | So many people want president's time that only most skilled/well-connected members of the lobbying community can hope to influence presidential decisions |
| Even when interest group is successful at getting bill passed by Congress and signed by president... | Full/faithful implementation of law is not guaranteed= Groups and their allies typically don't move on as soon as president turns their lobbied-for law over to the appropriate agency |
| Who do interest group representatives contact? | 40% contact both legislative/executive branch organizations= 13% contact only legislative branch= 16% contact only the executive branch |
| Interest-group access to the executive branch | Is promoted by federal law |
| The Administrative Procedure Act | Requires most federal agencies to provide notice and opportunity for comment before implementing proposed rules/regulations= Is called Notice-and-Comment rule making |
| Notice-and-Comment Rule Making | Meant to allow interests opportunity to make views known and participate in implementation of federal legislation that affects them |
| The Negotiated Rulemaking Act | Made by congress to encourage administrative agencies to engage in direct and open negotiations with affected interests when developing new regulations |
| Admin. Procedure Act and Negotiated Rulemaking Act | Both strongly enforced by courts and important in opening bureaucratic process to interest group influence |
| Few federal agencies would consider attempting to implement a new rule without... | Consulting affected interests (i.e. STAKEHOLDERS) |
| What requires easy/constant access to decision makers? | Exerting influence on Congress/government agencies by providing their members with info about issues/support/threats of retaliation |
| Dairy Farmers | (Example of why groups need to cultivate/maintain access)= 1960s, were part of powerful group of agricultural interests that had full access to COngress and Department of Agriculture= Arguments broke out between dairy farmers and produces of corn, grain/etc. over prices (dairy farmers, whose cows consumer grain, prefer low commodities prices while grain producers wanted high prices)= Commodity producers won= Dairy farmers left group and set up own lobby/political action groups and became involved in public relations campaigns and congressional/presidential elections= THEREFORE: dairy farmers lost traditional access and had to pursue outsider strategy (later accused of illegal contributions to reelect Nixon) |
| A successful long-term strategy for gaining access requires... | Much time/effort = Sometimes results in sacrifice of short-run influence |
| Important organized interests in agriculture devote more time/resources to what than what? | Give more to cultivating the staff/trustees of state agriculture schools and county agents back home than to buttonholing members of Congress or bureaucrats in Washington |
| Why have stricter guidelines regulating the actions of lobbyists been created recently? | Result of constant access to important decision makers that lobbyists seek/require |
| (Lobbying Regulation) As of 1993, businesses could no longer... | Deduct from their taxes the cost of lobbying= Trade associations must report to members the proportion of their dues that goes to lobbying, and that proportion may not be reported as a business expense |
| 1995 Lobbying Disclosure Act | Most important attempt to limit influence of lobbyists= Broadened definition of people/organizations that must register as lobbyists= According to act, 11,500 lobbyists worked in Congress in 2006 |
| (Lobbying Regulation) 1996, COngress passed legislation limiting... | Gifts from a single source to $50 and no more than $100 annually= Also banned practice of HONORARIA (was used by special interests to supplement congressional salaries)= Congress did not limit travel of representatives/senators/spouses/congressional staff members |
| Interest groups can pay for congressional travel as long as... | A trip is related to legislative business and is disclosed on congressional reports within 30 days= On these trips, meals/entertainment expenses aren't limited to $50 per event and $100 annually= Rules of congress allow its members to travel on corporate jets as long as they pay an amount equal to 1st class airfare |
| (Lobbying Regulation) In 2007, congressional Democrats secured enactment of a package of... | Ethics rules designed to fulfill their 2006 campaign promise to bring end to lobbying abuses= Prohibited lobbyists from paying for most meals/trips/parties/gifts for members of Congress= Lobbyists required to show amounts/sources of small campaign contributions they collected from clients and "bundled" into large contributions= Interest groups were required to disclose funds they used to rally voters to support/oppose legislative proposals= RESULT: As soon as rules were passed, all tried to find ways around them |
| Interest Groups: Using the Courts | Sometimes turn the courts to augment other avenues of access= Used to affect public policy by bringing suit directly on behalf of group itself, by financing suits brought by people, and by filing a companion brief as AMICUS CURIAE (=Friend of the Court) to existing court case |
| What are most significant uses of the courts as a strategy for political influence? | Those that accompanied the "sexual revolution" of 1960s and the emergence of the movement for women's rights |
| Griswold v. Connecticut | (1 of many cases that tried to get right to privacy in sexual matters [part of Court's passing of a constitutional doctrine of privacy]) Challenge to state restrictions on obtaining contraceptives for non-medical purposes= Ruled that states could not prohibit dissemination of information about nor prohibit the actual use of contraceptives by married couples |
| Eisenstadt v. Baird | (1 of many cases that tried to get right to privacy in sexual matters [part of Court's passing of a constitutional doctrine of privacy]) Court ruled that states could not prohibit use of contraceptives by single persons any more than it could prohibit their use by married couples |
| Roe v. Wade | (1 of many cases that tried to get right to privacy in sexual matters [part of Court's passing of a constitutional doctrine of privacy]) Court ruled that states could not impose absolute ban on voluntary abortions |
| Result of "Roe v. Wade" | Caused controversy that brought conservatives together on national level= Conservatives used courts to weaken power of privacy doctrine= Obtained rulings that prohibited use of federal funds to pay for voluntary abortions |
| In 1989, right-to-life groups were able to use strategy of what to undermined Roe v. Wade | Used a strategy of litigation (namely in case of Webster v. Reproductive Health Services) |
| Webster v. Reproductive Health Services | Restored right of states to place restrictions on abortions |
| NAACP | Example of the use of the courts as a method for political influence |
| Brown v. Board of Education | (NAACP case) Ruled that legal segregation of schools was unconstitutional= |
| Why are business groups users of the courts? | Because many government programs apply to them |
| Litigation involving large businesses is most difficult in areas like... | Taxation, antitrust issues, interstate transportation, patents, product quality/standardization= Often business is brought to litigation against will by virtue of initiatives taken against it by other businesses/government agencies= Individual businesses bring suit themselves to influence gov. policy |
| Major corporations and their trade associations pay... | Much $ annually in fees to most Washington law firms= Some of money is expanded in gaining access= Much of it is used to keep best/most experienced lawyers prepared to represent the corporations in court or before administrative agencies when necessary |
| Forces of new politics movement in 1970-80s | Used courts and judicial decisions were instrumental in advancing their goals |
| What caused the new politics agenda? | Caused by changes in rules governing access to courts |
| New Politics Agenda: Environmental Policy | New politics groups were able to force federal agencies to pay attention to environmental issues even when agencies were not directly involved in activities related to environmental quality |
| Going Public | Strategy that attempts to mobilize widest/most favorable climate of opinion= Many groups consider it crucial to maintain thsi climate at all times even when they have no issue to fight about= Increased use of this strategy is associated with modern advertising |
| Old lobby vs. New lobby | Political analysts been distinguishing between Old Lobby (of direct group representation before Congress) and New Lobby (of public relations professionals' adressing the public at large in order to reach Congress) |
| One way to go public | Use institutional advertising= The ads (by major oil, car, large corporations, trade associations) show how much these organizations are doing for the country, for the protection of the environment, or for the defense of the American way of life= Meant to create/maintain strong positive association between the organization and the community in hope that community's good feelings can be drawn on as needed for specific political campaigns |
| 2007 Radio/Television ads | Were sponsored by different defense contractors praising antiballistic missile systems= Few audience members were interested in buying such a weapons system but positive feelings might encourage members of Congress to support plan= Other ads praised pork/poultry/dairy products that were sponsored by producers= Purpose was to give Americans positive feeling toward the products (feeling that can be used by industry in event of health scare) |
| Why do many resort to protest? | They lack resources, contacts, or experience to use other political strategies |
| Why were the boycotts, sit-ins, mass rallies, and marches by Martin Luther King's Southern Christian Leadership Conference important? | Significant and successful case of going public (in this case by calling attention to abuses) to create a more favorable climate of opinion= Success inspired women to do the same |
| National Organization for Women | Used public strategies in drive for legislation and in efforts to gain ratification of the equal rights amendment |
| 1993 Gay Rights Groups | Organized mass rally in effort to eliminate restrictions on military service and other forms of discrimination against individuals based on sexual preference |
| Grassroots Lobbying Campaign | (Another for of going public) A lobby group mobilizes ordinary citizens throughtout country to write their representatives in support of the group's position= Can cost $40,000 to sway votes of crucial members of a committee or subcommittee to millions of $ to mount a national effort aimed at Congress= Have recently been important in battles over presidential appointments= Have been very effective (to point that many Washington consulting firms specialize in them) |
| Bonner and Associates | (Example of Washington firm that specializes in grassroots lobbying) Will generate grassroots telephone campaigns on behalf of or in opposition to important legislative proposals |
| Why has Grassroots lobbying become more powerful/common in Washington recently? | Because of adoption of congressional rules limiting gifts to members= Has thus made traditional lobbying more difficult |
| Example of intolerable extreme in Grassroots Lobbying | (Example of Astroturf Lobbying) 1992, 10 giant companies in financial services, manufacturing, hightech industries began grassroots campaign and spent much $ to influence decision in Congress to limit ability of investors to sue for fraud= Hiring an expensive consulting firm, the corporatins paid for use of specialized computer software to persuade Congress that many supported proposal (just as well, much mail was sent in support of legislation)= However, much of mail was fake generated by Washington-based campaign consultants (letters came from uncaring people about the issue)= RESULT: Congress, despite corporations big spending, shot down legislation saying that fewer REAL letters is more meaningful |
| Astroturf Lobbying | Have increased recently as Congress members grow more skeptical of Washington lobbyists and more concerned about demonstrations of support for a particular issue by their constituents |
| The Center for Responsive Politics | (A watchdog group) Estimated $1.16 billion was spent in 42 states that require lobbyists to report their expenditures |
| Besides trying to influence members of Congress and other gov. officials, interest groups seek to use the... | Electoral process to elect the right legislators in the first place and ensure that those whoare elected will owe them a debt of gratitude for their support= Still, financial support and campaign activism can be important tools for organized interest |
| Groups invest more resources in what than what? | Invest more in lobbying than in electoral politics |
| Most common electoral strategy employed by interest groups | Giving financial support to the parties or to particular candidates= But such support can easily cross the line into bribery= Congress thus tried to regulate |
| Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971 | (Amended in 1974) Limits campaign contributions and requires each candidate/campaign committee to provide the full name/address, occupation, and principal business of each person who contributes more than $100= Rules have bee effective up to a point in that many embarassments, indictments, resignations, and criminal convictions following Watergate scandal |
| What triggered the Watergate Scandal | When Republican "dirty tricksters" were caught breaking into office of the Democratic National Committee in Watergate apartment complex in Washington= Investigation revealed many violations of campaign finance laws, involving much $ that was passed from corporate executives to President Nixon's reelection committee |
| Ervin Committee | (Official name/jurisdiction was Senate Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities) Responsible for many discoveries made during Watergate Scandal |
| Reaction to Watergate produced legislation on what? | Produced further legislation on campaign finance in 1974 and 1976= Effect has been, however, to restrict individual rather than interest-group campaign activity |
| Individuals may now contribute no more than $2000 to... | (Post-Watergate Laws) Any candidate for federal office in any primary or general election |
| Political action committee can contribute how much if it does what? | (Post-Watergate Laws) Can contribute $5000 provided it contributes to at least 5 different federal candidates each year |
| The Post-Watergate laws permit corporations, unions, and other interest groups to do what? | To form Political Action Committees (PACs) and pay costs of soliciting funds from private citizens for the PACS |
| Political Action Committees (PACs) | Private groups that raise/distribute funds for use in election campaigns= Has grown as the source of campaign contributions |
| Post-Watergate Laws: Electoral Spending by Interest Groups | Has been increasing steadily |
| What has been the effect of the reform legislation of the 1970s | Although it attempted to reduce influence of special interests over elections, effect has been opposite= Opportunities for legally influencing companies are widespread |
| Because of large cost of TV commercials, polls, computers, and other elements of the new political technology, most politicians are... | Eager to get PAC contributions and are willing to give friendly hearing to needs/interests of contributors |
| Although politicians simply do not sell their votes to the interests that fund their campaigns, interest groups' campaign contributions do influence... | The overall pattern of political behavior in Congress and state legislatures |
| What do PACs and Campaign contributions provide organized interests with? Result? | Provide organized interests with such a useful tool for gaining access to political process that calls to abolish PACs have been quite frequent among political reformers |
| Concern about PACs grew in 1980s and thus caused what? | Created a constant desire for reform of federal election laws (McCain-Feingold Bill) |
| McCain-Feingold Bill | Aimed at reducing/eliminating PACs= Instead, when campaign finance reform was adopted in 2002 as the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA), it didn't restrict PACs significantly= It instead eliminated unrestricted soft-money donations to national political parties |
| Consequence of McCain-Feingold Bill | Created a host of 527 committees named after the section of the tax code that defines them which are often directed by former party officials but are often unaffiliated with the parties= These organizations are free to raise/spend as much as they can= In addition to 527 Committees, Issue Advocacy Groups (501C3 and 501C4) are also permitted to engage in political spending under the BCRA |
| Besides financial support, how else do organized groups seek influence through electoral politics? | Through activism |
| 2004 Democratic Campaign Activism | Many advocacy groups supporting Dems. made effort to register/mobilize many new voters who they hoped would support Democratic candidates= Organized labor targeted union households= Civil rights groups worked to register African Americans= Many new groups (MoveOn.org) labored to reach young people via the Internet= Idea was that young voters would favor the Democrats |
| 2004 Republican Campaign Activism | Worked with church groups and advocates of conservative causes like the National Rifle Association and the National Federation of Independent Business to register/mobilize voters likely to support GOP= Were ultimately more successful than Dems.= In states like Ohio and Florida, many religious conservatives, angered by social issues like gay marriage/abortion, went to the polls and helped the GOP win |
| Political tactic sometimes used by interest groups is sponsorship of... | Ballot initiatives at the state level |
| Initiative | Device adopted by many states around 1900 allows proposed laws to be placed on the general election ballot and submitted directly to the state's voters= Bypasses the state legislature and governor= Originally promoted by Populists as a device that allows the people to govern directly= Populists saw initiative as antidote to interest-group influence in the legislative process |
| Who sponsors most initiative campaigns today? | Interest groups seeking to circumvent legislative opposition to their goals= (EX: recently, initiative campaigns have been sponsored by the insurance industry, trial lawyers' associations, and tobacco companies)= Role of interest groups is no surprise because campaigns can cost much $ |
| Do interest groups effect government/policy? | Yes |
| Figueiredo and Silverman | (Conducted great study of impact of lobbying) Focused on particular form of lobbying: efforts by lobbyists to obtain "earmarks" (special, often disguised congressional appropriations) for colleges and universities on whose behalf they are working= Tons of $ in earmarks are written into law annually= Found that more money schools spent on lobbying activities, the larger the total quantity of earmarked funds they received= Extent of effect varied with institutional factors |
| Lobbying: Varying effect of lobbying | Schools in states with senator on the Senate Appropriations Committee go $18-$29 in earmarks for every $1 spent on lobbying= Schools in congressional districts whose representative served on House Appropriations Committee got between $49-$55 for every $1 spent on lobbying= Hovever, schools lacking such representation got only about $1 for every $1 spent on lobbying (not worth effort) |
| Varying effects of lobbying for schools suggest... | Institutions and politics are related= Schools without access to members of Congress in positions to help them can't gain much from lobbying while schools with such access still need to lobby to take advantage of the potential that representation on the Senate and House Appropriations Committees can give (but if they do so, potential return from lobbying is good) |
| Few programs/policies reach the public agenda without... | The intense support of important national interest groups |
| In realm of economic/social/international trade policy and even interest-free areas like criminal justice policy (where private prison corporations lobby for longer sentences for lawbreakers), interest-group activity is... | A central feature of American politics and public policy |
| Interest-Group often represent... | narrow, selfish interests= Small self-interested groups can be organized much more easily than large/more diffuse collectives= Members of a small group are usually able to recognize their shared interests and the need to pursue them in the political arena |
| Members of large and more diffuse groups find it difficult to... | Recognize their shared interests or need to engage in collective action to achieve them= This is why causes presented as public interests by their proponents often turn out to be private interests wrapped in a public mantle |
| Strong Political parties, unlike interest groups, mobilize... | The have-nots and offer them a voice in political affairs |
