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| Live coverage of war in Iraq | Reporters' presence was no accident= Allowing journalists to accompany troops was part of purposeful Defense Department strategy= Was case where US military policies were shaped by desire to obtain favorable news coverage rather than by anticipation of combat effectiveness |
| Embedded Reporters | (Those who covered the Iraq war) Military planners believed that they would quickly identify with the troops (whose hardships they shared) and write positive accounts of their activities)= Was successful (journalists' identification with troops was so powerful that used pron. WE when talking about military operations |
| Differences in tones of reports | embedded reporters provided favorable accounts of US military activities but their colleagues in US headquarters in Kuwait/NY were harsh |
| Cause of difference in tones of Iraq reports | Before war, were divisions within media regarding desirability of attacking Iraq |
| Opinion of War: Liberal/Democratic leaning press | (Led by The New York Times) Was sharply critical of Bush's diplomatic efforts and his intention to oust Saddam |
| Opinion of War: Conservative/Republican leaning press | (Led by The Washington Times, The Weekly Standard, Fox News Channel) Supported the president's policies |
| What did the differing opinions about the war also divide? | Divided the already divided networks= EX: The normally liberal and pro-Democratic Washington Post and The New Republic backed the war while Pat Buchanan's American Conservative opposed American intervention in Iraq |
| Credibility Gap: Iraq | Journalists quickly became critical of Bush's policies and began questioning the conduct of the American campaign= Commentators employed by the networks, including retired military officers, said not enough troops were committed to battle, that supplies were inadequate, Iraqi resistance had been underestimated, and that the war could easily become a Vietnam-style "quagmire"= Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld subjected to questions and gave doubtful answers (similar to Credibility Gap of Vietnam) |
| What added to the Credibility Gap? | When steady stream of American casualties and videos of violence in Iraq's cities began increasing= Media also gave much coverage to charges of US abusing prisoners at the Abu Ghraib detention facility near Baghdad |
| Result of daily media coverage of violence/chaos in Iraq | Persuaded American voters that it was time for a change and helped Democrats win control of both houses of Congress in 2006 |
| Media Response in 2007 when Bush announced that he planned to stabilize Iraq by sending more American troops to that country | Media treated his ideas with skepticism while giving much/good/kind coverage to congressional critics who said that Bush's plans were going to fail |
| Adversarial Journalism | Tendency of the press to criticize programs, policies, and public officials= Common in America= Although sometimes annoying, is a good feature of US press coverage |
| Critics suggest that the media has contributed to... | Popular cynicism and the lower levels of citizen participation that characterize American political processes |
| Why is media criticism good? | Is one of the major mechanisms of political accountability in the American political process |
| What do public officials accuse the media of doing? Why is this characteristic of the media good? | Public officials accuse media of presenting excessively negative coverage of political events and public affairs= However, withouth the media's investigations and exposes, people would be forced to rely entirely on the information provided to them by politicians and the government= This reliance hardly gives people a proper opportunity to evaluate issues/form reasoned opinions |
| A critical media play an essential role in a nation whose... | Citizens hope to govern themselves |
| What do both the media and politicians follow? | Follow first principle of politics: They engage in purposive behavior |
| What do politicians want to do? What do they need to do this? | Want to sell their policy agenda to citizens and mobilize support for it= Need the media to help communicate their message |
| Why do journalists and elected leaders often come into conflict with each other? | Because politicians would prefer to control content of news but the media has different goals/interests (i.e. market share, professional prestige, political influence) |
| Interests of citizens: What do their demands for certain types/amounts of political news influence? | Influences the adversarial nature of media politics |
| What is one of most important political values that is safeguarded by the media? | Freedom to speak one's mind |
| Describe the news covered by the many news sources in terms of government | Present info that is at odds with the government's claims and write editorial opinions that are sharply critical of high-ranking officials |
| How many news-sources exist? | Many, but little variety appears in what is reported about national events/issues |
| Where do Americans get their news from? | Broadcast media (radio, television), print media (newspapers, magazines), Internet |
| Each type of media have distinctive... | Institutional characteristics that help shape character of their coverage of political events |
| Television News | (Broadcast Media) Television news reaches more Americans than any other news source= Covers few topics and provides little depth of coverage= Is more like a series of newspaper headlines connected to pictures= Serves the extremely important function of alerting viewers to issues/events but provides little else |
| 24 Hour News Stations | Offer more detail/commentary than the networks' half-hour evening news shows (EX: Cable News Network [CNN])= At start of war in Iraq, CNN, Fox, and MSNBC provided 24 hour a day coverage of war including on-scene reports from embedded reporters, expert commentary, and interviews with gov. officials= In this case, these networks' depth of coverage rivaled that of print media |
| Typically, CNN and others offer... | More headlines than analysis, especially during their prime-time broadcasts |
| Politicians view the local broadcast news as a... | Friendlier venue than the national news |
| National Reporters vs. Local Reporters | National reporters are often inclined to criticize/question while local reporters often accept the pronouncements of national leaders at face value |
| Because of the character of national reporters vs. local reporters, Presidents... | Often introduce new proposals in a series of short visits to many cities in addition to/instead of making a national presentation |
| Radio News | (Broadcast Media) Is basically a headline service without pictures= In the short time (usually 5 minutes per hour) that they devote to news, radio stations announce the day's major events without providing much detail |
| All-News Stations in Big Cities | Provide a little more coverage of major stories (compared to rest of stations) but they still mainly fill the day with repetition rather than detail (EX: WTOP, WCBS) |
| All-News stations assume that... | Most listeners are in their cars and that, as a result, the people who constitute the audience change rapidly throughout the day as they reach their destination= Therefore, rather than use their time to flesh out a given set of stories, the stations repeat the same stories each hour to present them to new listeners |
| Radio Talk Shows | Have become important sources of commentary/opinion= Many conservative radio hosts, like Rush Limbaugh, have huge audiences and have helped mobilize support for conservative political causes/candidates= Liberals have had less success |
| Air America | (Created by liberal political activist Anita Drobny [a major Dem. party donor]) Made in 2003 and is a liberal talk-radio network meant to combat conservative dominance of the radio= Specializes in parody and political satire= In 2007, filed for Ch. 11 bankruptcy protection and was sold |
| Recently, what has the content of news (especially local news) shifted away from/to? | Has shifted away from politics and public affairs toward SOFT NEWS= Even much political coverage is soft |
| Soft News | Coverage focusing on celebrities, health tips, advice to consumers, and other more entertaining stories, rather than enlightening stories |
| Infotainment | Type of programming that is softer than soft news= Refers to material that tries to combine information with entertainment |
| The Daily Show | Popular infotainment program= Presents comedic parodies of political figures and called itself America's most trusted name in fake news= While many are angered with the show and other infotainment programs, many Daily Show viewers actually get a fair amount of correct info. along with their fake news |
| Newspapers | (Print Media) Important source of news even though they are not the primary news source for most Americans |
| Why is the print media important? | The broadcast media rely on leading newspapers (e.g. The New York Times, The Washington Post) to set their news agenda= The print media provide more detailed/complete information offering a better context for analysis= Print media is the prime source of news for educated/influential people |
| Describe the reporting/coverage of Broadcast media | Broadcast media do little actual reporting= Mainly cover stories that have been "broken" or initially reported by the print media= (If the print media doesn't report it, TV wont report it) |
| Breaking News | Is an exception to the print-TV media relationship= Is news that can be carried by the broadcast media as it unfolds or soon after while the print media are forced to catch up later in the day (EX: Collapse of twin towers) |
| What do the nation's economic, social, and political elites rely on? | Rely on the detailed coverage provided by print media to inform/influence their views about important matters |
| Print Media vs. Broadcasting | Print media may have smaller audience than broadcasting, but they have an important audience |
| Internet | Relatively new source of news= Many young Americans san news sites daily= Provides electronic versions of coverage offered by print sources= Most political candidates/interest groups have sites on Internet |
| Advantage of Internet | Allows for frequent updating= Can combine depth of coverage of a newspaper with the timeliness of TV and radio |
| Matt Drudge | Has website and specializes in posting sensational charges about public figures= Was one of first to report Clinton's affair= Most reporters scan site regularly hoping to pick up a bit of good gossip |
| Internet: Political entrepreneurs | Have been trying to organize online advocacy groups to raise money, make positions known through e-mail and letter campaigns, and provide support for politicians who accepted their views |
| MoveOn.org | (Successful site made by liberal political entrepreneurs) Tries to build electronic advocacy groups allowing members to propose issues/strategies and acting on behalf of thsoe that appear to have the highest level of member support |
| Internet: Hillary Clinton | After announcing bid for presidential nomination, she got/answered questions from voters in an online chat= Spoke into a webcam and discussed health care, energy policy, and even her favorite movies with a group of pre-selected voters |
| Blogs | (A.K.A. Web Logs) Are informal sources of Internet news/commentary that attract many people= Are published online by mane people and generally feature personal opinion and commentary on national/world events (some bloggers even get fame)= Many blogs invite readers to post comments and can become online discussion forums= Some discussions are even picked up by mainstream journalists and have had major impact on political events |
| Netroot Activists | Bloggers and other avid Internet users |
| Blogs for Bush | Republican counter to what they saw as liberal dominance of the BLOGOSPHERE= Called itself The White House of the Blogosphere= Continues to support GOP |
| Broadcast Regulation: Other Countries | In some countries, government control media content= In other countries, government owns the broadcast media but does not tell the media what to say (EX: BBC in Great Britain) |
| Broadcast Regulation: USA | Government neither owns nor control the communications networks but does regulate the content and ownership of the broadcast media |
| Print Media: Regulation | Is free from government interference |
| Broadcast Media: Regulation | Subject to federal regulation |
| American TV/Radio: Regulation | Regulated by Federal Communications Commission (FCC)= Must renew their FCC licenses every 5 years= Licensing provides a mechanism for allocating radio/TV frequencies in a way that prevents broadcasts from interfering with/garbling one another= License renewals are almost always granted automatically by FCC= Can send renewal requests by postcard |
| Federal Communications Commission (FCC) | Independent regulatory agency that regulates US radio and TV= Through regulations prohibiting obscenity/indecency/profanity, FCC has tried to prohibit radio/TV stations from airing explicit sexual references between 6am and 10pm (the hours when children are most likely to be in audience)= Has enforced these rules randomly |
| FCC: Enforcement of rules and penalties | Since 1990, gotten $5 million in fines from Howard Stern (whose show is based around sexual explicit material)= Stern was, after another set of FCC fines, dropped by major outlet, Clear Channel Communications= Stern said that Bush singled him out because his opposition to president was known |
| Telecommunications Act | Effort to do away with most regulations in effect since 1934 by FCC (FCC had wanted to regulate/promote competition in broadcast industry)= Act loosened restrictions on media ownership and allowed for telephone companies, cable television providers, and broadcasters to compete with each other for provision of telecommunication services= Following act, many mergers between telephone and cable companies and between different segments of entertainment media produced even greater concentration of media ownership= Also tried to regulate the content of material transmitted via Internet |
| Communications Decency Act | (Attempt in The Telecommunications Act of 1996 to regulate content of internet material) Made it illegal to make "indecent" sexual material on Internet accessible to anyone under 18= Was immediately attacked by civil libertarians and brought to court as infringement of free speech (Supreme court ultimately ruled it an unconstitutional infringement of the First Amendment's right to freedom of speech) |
| Although gov.'s ability to regulate content of electronic media on Internet has been question, federal gov. has used its licensing power to... | Impose many regulations that can affect the political content of radio and TV broadcasts (equal time rule, right of rebuttal, fairness doctrine) |
| Equal Time Rule | Broadcasters must provide candidates for the same office equal opportunities to communicate their messages to public |
| Right of Rebuttal | Requires that people be given opportunity to respond to personal attacks |
| Red Lion Broadcasting Company vs. FCC | (Example of Right to Rebuttal) Upheld FCC's determination that a radio station was required to provide a liberal author with an opportunity to respond to an attack by a conservative commentator that the station had aired |
| Fairness Doctrine | Broadcaster who aired programs on controversial issues were required to provide air time for opposing views= FCC stopped enforcing in 1985 on grounds that there were so many radio/TV stations that many different viewpoints were probably being presented even without requirement that each station present all sides of an argument= Congressional efforts to require FCC to enforce this rule was blocked by administration of Ronald Regain |
| Prior Restraint | Principle that underlies the federal gov.'s relationship with the press |
| Near vs. Minnesota | (Helped establish "Prior Restraint") Ruled that except under very rare circumstances, the 1st Amendment of the Constitution prohibits gov. agencies from seeking to prevent newspapers/magazines from publishing whatever they want |
| New York Times vs. US | (Helped establish "Prior Restraint") Was the Pentagon Papers Case= Ruled that gov. cant even block publication of secret Defense Department documents given to NY Times by opponent of Vietnam War who obtained documents illegally |
| What was the case that challenged Prior Restraint for the media? | CNN got tapes of conversation between former Panamanian leader and his lawyer= Court ruled that was up to trial court to see if publishing of tapes would hurt fair trial= Weakened prior restraint for media |
| Supreme Court: Cable television Systems | Were entitled to same 1st Amendment protections as print media |
| Although newspapers may not be restrained from publishing whatever they want... | They may be subject to sanctions after the fact |
| Law of Libel | Says that newspapers that print false and malicious stories can be compelled to pay damages to those they defame (thus checks newspapers)= Courts have recently narrowed meaning of libel and made it hard, specifically for politicians, to win a libel case against a newspaper |
| New York Times vs. Sullivan | Ruled that to be deemed libelous, story about a public official not only had to be untrue but had to also result from "actual malice" or "reckless disregard" for truth= Simply, newspapers had to deliberately print false/malicious material (this is practically impossible to prove and is hard for politician to win a libel case) |
| Masson vs. New Yorker Magazine | (Example of how it is hard to win a libel case) Ruled that fabricated quotations attributed to a public figure were libelous only if the fabricated account "materially changed" the meaning of what the person said |
| What can the print media publish? | Can publish anything they want about a public figure |
| Although there are many news sources and local coverage varies greatly from place to place... | There are few sources of national news |
| Sources of National News | 1 wire service, 5 broadcast networks, public radio and TV, 3 elite newspapers, 3 newsmagazines, and other sources (like the national correspondents of a few large local papers and the small independent radio networks) |
| Most of the national news that is published by local newspapers is provided by... | 1 wire service, the Associated Press= Many of US's TV stations are affiliated with 1 of the 5 networks and carry its evening news reports= Many others carry Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) news= Many local radio stations carry network news or National Public Radio (NPR) news broadcasts |
| What are the 3 truly national newspapers? | The Wall Street Journal, The Christian Science Monitor, USA Today |
| What else is read besides the 3 truly national newspapers by political leaders/influential people? | The 2 Elite Newspapers (i.e. The New York Times and The Washington Post) |
| Whose news coverage sets standard for all other news outlets? | The 2 Elite newspapers and the Tall Street Journal= Stories in New York Times or Washington Post influence content of many other papers as well as the network news |
| Who presents Americans with National News? | 3 major newsmagazines: Time, Newsweek, and US News and World Report |
| CNN | Became important in 1980s= Importance has increased after its great coverage of the Persian Gulf War= Was once able to provide live coverage of American bombing raids on Baghada after the major networks' correspondents had been forced to flee to bomb shelters |
| FOX | Replaced CNN as nations main cable news source in 2003= Rise of fox had important political implications because its coverage and commentators are considerably more conservative than CNN's= Emergence of Fox also demonstrates importance of the existence of more news sources |
| When there are few sources of news... | Each is likely to position itself within a discrete ideological/partisan niche which increases the diversity of viewpoints presented to listeners and viewers |
| What has sped up the trend towards homogenization of national news? | Hastened by dramatic changes in media ownership which became possible as result of the relaxation of government regulations since 1980s (i.e. Telecommunications Act and a wave of mergers/consolidations further reduced field of independent media across the country) |
| What did the enactment of the 1996 Telecommunications Act open the way for? | Opened way for additional consolidation in media industry |
| Which companies bought which news networks? | ABC was bought by Walt Disney Company= CBS was bought by Westinghouse and later merged with Viacom (owner of MTV and Paramount Communications)= CNN was bought by Time Warner= NBC has been owned by General Electric since 1985 |
| Rupert Murdoch | (Australian press baron) Owns Fox Network plus many radio/TV?newspaper properties around world= Is the financial force behind The Weelky Standard |
| Describe current conditions media ownership | Small # of giant corporations now control variety of media holdings (i.e. TV networks, movie studios, record companies, cable cahnnels, local cable providers, book publishers, magazines, newspapers) |
| 2003 FCC Rules | Seemed to allow for even more concentration in media industry= Mandated that major networks could own TV stations that collectively reached 45% of all viewers (up from 35% under old rule)= Also allows a single company to own the leading newspaper as well as many TV and radio outlets in a single market (in the largest cities, this could include a newspaper, 3 TV stations, and up to 8 radio stations)= new rules were welcomed by Major media companies (which had long lobbied for right to expand their activities) |
| National news media coverage | Cover same sets of events, present similar information, and emphasize similar issues/problems= National news services wath one another carefully |
| Why did the US develop and centralized national news? What is it? | Because national news media cover same stuff, US developed centralized national news through which similar events/issues/problems are presented to entire nation= Nationalization of news was accelerated by development of radio networks in 1920s and 30s and was at peak due to creation of TV networks after 1950s |
| Nationalization of news has contributed greatly to nationalization of both... | Politics and political perspectives= Before development of national media and the nationalization of news coverage, news traveled slowly (most saw national issues from its own perspective)= Concerns/perspectives varied= Today, all parts of US share similar ideas, although they might not agree on everything |
| What affects news coverage | Journalists/producers of the news, politicians or other sources of the news, and consumers |
| The character of the news is shaped by... | The institutions that produce it |
| Media content and news coverage are affected by... | Views, ideals, and interests of the people/organizations that seek out/write/produce news |
| Most publishers are concerned with what as opposed to what? | Concerned with business end of paper rather than its editorial content (although some continue to impose their tastes on news) |
| Goals and incentives of journalists | Vary but often include considerations of ratings, career success and professional prestige, and political influence= Journalists' goals have influence on what is created/reported as news |
| What do journalists do with the news? | Try to report the news and also interpret it |
| Journalists who cover news for national media have much... | Freedom to interpret stories and thus have opportunity to interject their own views and ideals into news stories |
| Conservatives have long charged that liberal biases of reporters/journalists... | Result in distorted news coverage= Charge supported by study |
| Groseclose and Milyo | FOund a liberal bias in the news presented by many major papers and all but one broadcast network (FOX) |
| Which news sources are biased? | While the most important national newspapers (i.e. The New York Times and The Washington Post) are liberal and Democratic in their orientation, many smaller papers support Republicans |
| Despite personal views, most reporters try to... | Maintain some measure of balance/objectivity |
| Result of liberal media | A conservative media complex has emerged in opposition to the liberal media recently= This complex includes The Wall Street Journal and The Washington Times= Also includes magazines (like The American Spectator and The Weekly Standard)= Also includes conservative radio/TV talk programs |
| What does the emergence of this conservative media complex mean? | Meant that liberal policies/politicians are virtually certain to come under attack even when the "liberal media" is sympathetic to them |
| Selection Bias (in the media) | The predisposition of consumers to choose particular types of stories (for entertainment)= Results, in practice, in news coverage that focuses on crimes/scandals especially those involving prominent individuals despite fact that the public obviously looks to media for info about important political debates |
| News coverage is influenced by politicians, public officials, and other news sources whose... | Interests/activities are actual or potential news topics |
| Politicians and News | Want to be seen by public as trustworthy/energetic/caring/able to discharge public duties with which they have been/hope to be entrusted |
| Most politicians will take/make opportunities... | For media coverage they deem likely to help their image that they wish to make |
| How do presidents use media to show nation that they are qualified during important times? | Through there speeches that are televised |
| Why are politicians attracted to natural disasters? | Because they know that the media will provide much coverage of them |
| Televised official inspection tour of a disaster site | Is a staple of US politics= Tour consists of president and affected state's governor/senator/politicians followed by staff and reporters= All first fly over the scene and then land in safe area so that they can give best wishes to survivors and promise necessary resources= Politicians hope that viewers will see them as compassionate problem solvers (Bush failed to do this) |
| How did JFK make a favorable media image? | Sought to make strong relationships with influential journalists |
| How did Bill Clinton make a favorable media image? | Appeared on soft news and entertainment programs to connect with ordinary Americans and show that their president was not out of touch (EX: Clinton tooted his Sax on a late night entertainment program and discussed his choice of underwear with teenage reporters on MTV) |
| How do politicians, interest groups, etc. try to shape news coverage? | News leaks, news releases, and cash payments to journalists= However, even though media is not oblivious to politicians efforts, they have good reaosn in allowing themselves to be manipulated |
| Journalists may publish leaked info in order to... | Maintain good relations with important sources even when they know the source is pursuing their own political agenda |
| Editors and publishers have a financial stake in relying on what despite what? | Rely heavily on press releases even though they know the info they present is not objective |
| The institutional stakes of the media may interfere with... | The unbiased and objective presentation of the news |
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