| A | B |
|---|
| Providing food in the US and Canada | Huge industry= Only a few people are full-time farmers (and they may be more familiar with operation of computers/advanced machinery than the typical factory or office worker |
| American/Canadian Farm vs. World | Is mechanized/highly productive= Contrasts with the SUBSISTENCE farm found in much of world= This contrast in agricultural practices is one of most fundamental differences between MDC's and LDC's of the world |
| The most "typical" human | Is an Asian farmer who grows enough food to survive, with LITTLE surplus |
| Economic Activities: Sectors | Economic Activities can be divided into 3 sectors: PRIMARY, SECONDARY, TERTIARY sectors |
| Economic Activities: Agriculture | Is the principal form of PRIMARY-sector economic activity |
| Geographers and Agriculture: What do they study | Study WHERE agriculture is distributed across Earth |
| Geographers and Agriculture: What is the most important distinction | Is what happens to farm products |
| Less Developed REGIONS: What happens to farm products | In these REGIONS, the farm products are often consumed on/near the farm where they are produced |
| MDC: What happens to farm products | In MDCs, farmers sell what they produce |
| Why do geographers observe a wide variety of agricultural practices | Reason why farming varies around world relates to the distribution of cultural and environmental factors across space |
| Elements of the Physical Environment: Affect on Agriculture | Elements on the physical environment (i.e. climate, soil, topography) set broad limits on agricultural practices= Farmers thus make choices to modify the environment in a variety of ways (is the reason why wide variety of agricultural practices exist) |
| Farming | Is an economic activity= Still depends heavily on LOCAL DIVERSITY of environmental and cultural conditions in each place= Despite increased knowledge of alternatives, farmers practice distinctive agriculture in different regions/neighboring farms (due to broad climate patterns and local soil conditions) |
| Climate Patterns | Broad climate patterns influence the crops planted in a region |
| Soil Conditions | Local soil conditions influence the crops planted on an individual farm |
| Describe farms in each society | In each society, farmers possess very specific knowledge of their environemntal conditions and certain technology for modifying the landscape= Within limits of their technology, farmers choose from variety of agricultural practices (based on their perception of the value of each alternative [these values are partly economic and partly cultural]) and |
| How farmers deal with their physical environment varies according to... | Dietary preferences, availability of technology, and other cultural traditions |
| Farmers select agricultural practices based on what and why | Cultural perceptions because a society may praise/dislike certain foods |
| Individual Farmers: Decisions | May make specific decisions on a very local scale |
| Agriculture and today's economy | Agriculture is caught up in the globalization of the economy (like other industries) |
| MDCs and LDCs: Agriculture | MDCs: Is a big business; LDCs: Is a major component of international trade CONNECTIONS |
| Origins of agriculture | Cannot be documented with certainty (because it began before recorded history)= Scholars try to reconstruct a logical sequence of events based on fragments of info. about ancient agricultural practices and historical environmental conditions (improvements in cultivating plants and domesticating animals evolved over thousands of years)= Agriculture did not originate in 1 location but began in multiple/independent HEARTHS (="points of origin") from which agricultural practices diffused across Earth's surface |
| Agriculture | Deliberate modification of Earth's surface through cultivation of plants and rearing of animals to obtain sustenance or economic gain= Thus originated when humans domesticated plants and animals for their use |
| Cultivate | Means "to care for" |
| Crop | Is any plant cultivated by people |
| Before the invention of agriculture | (Hunters and Gatherers) All humans probably got food needed for survival by hunting/fishing or gathering plants (including berries, nuts, fruits, roots) |
| Hunters and Gatherers: Groups | Lived in small groups (usually fewer than 50 people) because a big # would quickly exhaust the available resources within walking distance= Men hunted game or fished= Women collected berries, nuts, and roots |
| Hunters and Gatherers: Survival | Survived by collecting food often/daily= Food searches could take short time or much of day (depending on local conditions) |
| Hunters and Gatherers: Migration | The group traveled often, establishing new home bases/camps= Direction and frequency of migration depended on the movement of game and the seasonal growth of plants at various locations |
| Hunters and Gatherers: Communication and Keeping the Peace | Groups communicated with each other concerning hunting rights, intermarriage, and other specific subjects= Kept the peace by avoiding each other's territory |
| Hunters and Gatherers: Today | A quarter-million people (i.e. less than 0.005% of world's population) still survive by hunting and gathering rather than by agriculture= Live in isolated locations (including Arctic and interior of Africa, Australia, South America [EX: African Bushmen of Namibia and Botswana, Aborigines in Australia]) |
| Contemporary Hunting and Gathering Societies | Are isolated groups living on the periphery of world settlement= Provide insight into human customs that prevailed in prehistoric times, before invention of agriculture |
| Why did nomadic groups convert from hunting, gathering, and fishing to agriculture? | In gathering wild vegetation, people cut plants and dropped berries/fruits/seeds= These hunters probably observed that over time damaged/discarded food produced new plants= May have deliberately cut plants/dropped berries on ground to see if they would produce new plants= Later generations learned to pour water over the site and to introduce manure and other soil improvements= Over thousands of years, plant cultivation evolved from a combo. of accident and deliberate experiment |
| Why/when did prehistoric people domesticate animals? | May have originally domesticated animals for noneconomic reasons (i.e. for sacrifices and other religious ceremonies)= Other animals were domesticated as household pets (surviving on the group's food scraps) |
| Types of Cultivation | According to the prominent cultural geographer Carl Sauer, there are 2 types of cultivation: "Vegetative Planting" and "Seed Agriculture" |
| Vegetative Planting | (According to Carl Sauer) Is the earliest form of plant cultivation= Is the reproduction of plants by direct cloning from existing plants (i.e. cutting stems and dividing roots)= Plants found growing wild were deliberately divided and transplanted |
| Seed Agriculture | (According to Carl Sauer) Form of plant cultivation (that came after "vegetative planting")= Is the reproduction of plants through annual planting of seeds that result from sexual fertilization= Is practiced by most farmers today |
| Vegetative Planting: Origin/Hearth | (According to Carl Sauer) Originated in Southeast Asia= The region's diversity of climate and topography probably encouraged growth of a wide variety of plants suitable for dividing and transplanting= Also, the people in this region obtained food mainly by fishing rather than by hunting and gathering (so they may have been more sedentary and thus able to devote more attention to growing plants) |
| Southeast Asia: 1st Plants Domesticated | 1st plants domesticated in Southeast Asia (is the origin of Vegetative Planting) through vegetative planting included roots (e.g. the taro and yam) and tree crops (e.g. the banana and palm) |
| Vegetative Planting: Diffusion | Diffused from the Southeast Asian hearth northward and eastward to China and Japan and westward through India to Southwest Asia, tropical Africa, and the Mediterranean lands |
| Southeast Asia: 1st Livestock Domesticated | Dog, pig, and chicken were 1st livestock domesticated in Southeast Asia (the hearth/origin of Vegetative Planting) |
| Vegetative Planting: Other Early Hearths | Other early hearths (other than its creation/founding/origin in Southeast Asia) may have emerged independently in West Africa (may have begun with the oil-palm tree and yam) and northwestern South America (may have begun with the manioc, sweet potato, and arrowroot)= The practice of Vegetative Planting diffused from northwestern South America to Central America and eastern portions of South America |
| Seed Agriculture: Origin | Originated in multiple hearths (just like Vegetative Planting)= Carl Sauer identified 3 hearths in the Eastern Hemisphere: Western India, Northern China, Ethiopia= Seed Agriculture diffused quickly from western India to Southwest Asia (where important early advances were made [including the domestication of WHEAT and BARLEY {are 2 grains that became very important thousands of years later in European and American civilizations}]) |
| Who were the first to integrate Seed Agriculture with Domestication of Herd Animals? | (Besides domesticating wheat and barley...) Inhabitants of Southwest Asia were 1st to integrate Seed Agriculture with domestication of herd animals (e.g. cattle, sheep, goats)= These animals were used to plow the land before planting seeds and, in return, were fed part of the harvested crop= Other animal products (e.g. milk, meat, skins) were 1st exploited at a later date (according to Sauer) |
| What is a fundamental element of modern agriculture? | The integration of plants and animals (Southwest Asia was first to integrate seed agriculture with domestication of herd animals) |
| Seed Agriculture: Diffusion | Diffused from Southwest Asia across Europe and through North Africa= Also diffused eastward from Southwest Asia to northwestern India and the Indus River plain |
| Seed Agriculture: Diffusion across Europe | (Seed agriculture diffused FROM Southwest Asia ACROSS Europe and THROUGH North Africa) Greece, Crete, Cyprus display earliest evidence of seed agriculture in Europe |
| Seed Agriculture: Diffusion from Europe | (Seed agriculture diffused FROM Southwest Asia ACROSS Europe and THROUGH North Africa) From these countries in Europe (Greece, Crete, Cyprus), agriculture diffused northwestward through the Danube River basin, eventually to the Baltic and North seas, and northeastward to Ukraine |
| Seed Agriculture: Diffusion of domesticated plants and animals from Southwest Asia | Most of the plants & animals domesticated in Southwest Asia spread into Europe (however, BARLEY and CATTLE became more important farther north [due to cooler & moister climatic conditions])= Various domesticated plants and animals were also brought from Southwest Asia to northwestern India and the Indus River plain (however, other plants [e.g. COTTON and RICE] arrived in India from different hearths) |
| Seed Agriculture: Millet | From the northern China hearth, millet diffused to South Asia and Southeast Asia |
| Seed Agriculture: Rice | Has an unknown hearth (although some geographers consider Southeast Asia to be its most likely location)= Rice ultimately became the MOST important crop in much of Asia |
| Seed Agriculture: Ethiopia | Sauer identified a 3rd independent hearth in Ethiopia, where millet and sorghum were domesticated early= However, Sauer argued that agricultural advances in Ethiopia did not diffuse widely to other locations= It is ironic that Ethiopia is an ancient hearth for seed agriculture because rapid population growth, devastating civil wars, and adverse environmental conditions have combined to make Ethiopia the site of widespread starvation |
| Seed Agriculture: Western Hemisphere | 2 independent seed agriculture hearths originated in the Western Hemisphere: southern Mexico and northern Peru= From these 2 hearths, agricultural practices diffused to other parts of the Western Hemisphere (although agriculture was not widely practiced until European colonists began to arrive about 500 years ago)= the only domesticated animals were the llama, alpaca, and turkey (herd animals were unknown until European explorers brought them in the 16th century) |
| Seed Agriculture: Southern Mexico | The hearth in southern Mexico (extended into Guatemala and Honduras) was the point of origin for squash and maize (corn) |
| Seed Agriculture: Northern Peru | The hearth in northern Peru was where squash, beans, and cotton were domesticated |
| That agriculture had multiple origins means that... | From earliest times, people have produced food in distinctive ways in different regions |
| Why have people produced food in distinctive ways in different regions? | This diversity derives from a unique legacy of wild plants, climatic conditions, and cultural preferences in each region |
| In recent centuries, what has encouraged the diffusion some plants to varied locations around the world? | Improved communications= Many plants and animals thrive across a wide portion of Earth's surface (not just in their place of original domestication)= EX: Only after 1500 were wheat, oats, and barley introduced to the Western Hemisphere, and maize to the Eastern Hemisphere |
| Differences in Agricultural Practices | Most fundamental differences in agricultural practices are between those in LDCs and those in MDCs |
| Farmers in MDCs | Farmers in MDCs (including US, Canada, Western Europe, Australia, New Zealand) practice commercial agriculture |
| Farmers in LDCs | Farmers in LDCs generally practice subsistence agriculture |
| Subsistence Agriculture | (Found in LDCs) Is the production of food mainly for consumption by the farmer's family |
| Commercial Agriculture | (Found in MDCs) Is the production of food mainly for sale off the farm |
| Commercial Agriculture vs. Subsistence Agriculture: 5 Principal Distinguishing Features (between the 2 types of agriculture) | (Subsistence & commercial agriculture are undertaken for diff. purposes) Purpose of farming; % of farmers in the labor force; Use of machinery; Farm size; Relationship of farming to other businesses |
| Purpose of Farming: LDC | People produce food for their own consumption= Some surplus may be sold to gov. or private firms (but the surplus product is NOT the farmer's primary purpose and may not even exist some years because of growing conditions |
| Purpose of Farming: Commercial Farming | Farmers grow crops/raise animals for sale off the farm rather than for their own consumption= Agricultural products are not sold directly to consumers but to food-processing companies (large processors [e.g. General Mills, Kraft] sign contracts with commercial farmers to buy their grain/chickens/cattle/other output)= Farmers may have contracts to sell sugar beets to sugar refineries, potatoes to distilleries, oranges to manufacturers of concentrated juices |
| % of Farmers in the Labor Force: MDCs | Less than 1/10th of the workers in MDCs are engaged directly in farming= % of farmers is even lower in US and Canada (at only 2%)= Still, the small % of farmers in US and Canada produces enough food for themselves and the rest of the region as well as a surplus to feed people elsewhere |
| % of Farmers in the Labor Force: LDCs | More than 1/2 of the workers in LDCs are engaged directly in farming |
| # of farmers in MDCs during the 20th century | Declined dramatically in MDCs= US had 6 million farms in 1940 and 4 million in 1960 (# of farms has stabilized during the past 2 decades at 2 million)= Push and Pull migration factors have been responsible for the decline (people were pushed away from farms by lack of opportunity to earn a decent income, and at the same time they were pulled to higher-paying jobs in urban areas) |
| Can a small # of farmers in MDCs feed many people? | YES!!! Because they rely on machinery to perform work (rather than relying on people or animals) |
| Can a small # of farmers in LDCs feed many people? | NO!!! Because farmers do much of the work with hand tools and animal power (instead of using machinery) |
| Use of Machinery: History | Traditionally, the farmer or local craftspeople made equipment from wood= However, beginnin in the late 18th century, factories produced farm machinery= First all-iron plow was made in 1770s and was followed in the 19th & 20th centuries by inventions that made farming less dependent on human/animal power= Tractors/combines/corn pickers/planters/other factory-made farm machines have replaced/supplemented manual labor |
| Use of Machinery: Transportation | Transportation improvements also aid COMMERCIAL farmers= The building of railroads in 19th century and the building of highways/trucks in 20th century have enabled farmers to transport crops and livestock farther and faster |
| Use of Machinery: Transportation's effect on Cattle and Crops | Cattle arrive at market heavier and in better condition when transported by truck/train than when driven on hoof= Crops reach markets without spoiling |
| Use of Machinery: Scientific Advances | COMMERCIAL farmers use scientific advances to increase productivity= Experiments conducted in university labs./industry/research organizations generate new fertilizers/herbicides/hybrid plants/animal breeds/farming practices which produce higher crop yields and healthier animals= Access to other scientific info. has enabled farmers to make more intelligent decisions concerning proper agricultural practices (some farmers conduct their own on-farm research) |
| Use of Machinery: Electronics | Electronics aid COMMERCIAl farmers= Global Position System (GPS) units determine precise coordinates for spreading diff. types/amounts of fertilizers= On LARGE RANCHES, GPS is also used to monitor location of cattle= Satellite imagery monitors crop progress= Yield monitors attached to combines determine precise # of bushels being harvested |
| Farm Size: Commercial Agriculture | Average farm size is large in commercial agriculture (especially in US and Canada)= US farms average 171 hectares (444 acres)= Despite size, most commercial farms in MDCs are family owned and operated (98% in US)= Commercial farmers frequently expand their holdings by renting nearby fields |
| Who dominates Commercial Agriculture | Commercial Agriculture is increasingly dominated by a small # of large farms= In US, the 29,000 largest farms average more than 1,200 (3,000 acres) and sell an average of more than $3 million of agricultural products per year (i.e. $400 per hectare [i.e. $1,000 per acre])= The 29,000 farms comprise only 1.4% of all US farms but they account for 48% of all agricultural sales= At the other extreme, 1/2 of the 2 million US farms generate less than $5,000 per year in sales and average a bit more than 40 hectares (100 acres) in size (thus, they generate sales of only $20 per hectare [i.e. $50 per acre]) |
| Farm Size: What is size a consequence of? | Large size is partly a consequence of mechanization= Combines/pickers/other machinery perform most efficiently at very large scales and their very high cost cannot be justified on a small farm |
| Commercial Agriculture: Cost | Is an expensive business due to the large size and high level of mechanization= Farmers spend much $ to buy/rent land & machinery before beginning operations (this $ is often borrowed from a bank and repaid after the output is sold) |
| US: Farm Size, # of Farmers, # of Farms | Although US currently has fewer farms and farmers than in 1900, the amount of land devoted to agriculture has increased (US had 60% fewer farms and 85% fewer farmers in 2000 than in 1900, but 13% more farmland [mainly through irrigation and reclamation]) |
| US: Farmland since 1960 | Amount of US farmland as declined from all-time peak in 1960= US has been losing 500,000 hectares (1.2 million acres) per year of its 400 million hectares (1 billion acres) of farmland mainly due to the expansion of urban areas |
| Prime Agricultural Land | Is the most productive farmland= Recently, a more serious problem than the decrease in the amount of farmland in in the US has been the loss of 200,000 hectares (500,000 acres) of this "Prime Agricultural Land" as urban areas sprawl into the surrounding countryside |
| Relationship of farming to other businesses | COMMERCIAL farming is closely tied to other businesses |
| Agribusiness | Is the system of commercial farming found in the US and other MDCs= In this system, the family farm is not an isolated activity but is integrated into a large food-production industry (Thus, COMMERCIAL farmers heavily use modern communications and info. technology to stay in touch and keep track of prices/yields/expenditures)= 20% of US labor works in food production and service related to agribusiness (e.g. food processing, packaging, storing, distributing, retailing)= Agribusiness encompasses such diverse enterprises as tractor manufacturing, fertilizer production, and seed distribution= Although most farms are owned by individual families, many other aspects of agribusiness are controlled by large corporations |
| Describe how much of the US labor force works in the "Food Business" | Although farmers are less than 2% of the US labor force, around 20% of US labor works in food production and service related to agribusiness |
| Mapping Agricultural Regions | Many attempts been made to outline the major types of subsistence & commercial agriculture currently practiced in world (but few of these classifications include maps that show regional distributions)= Most widely used map of world agricultural regions was prepared by geographer Derwent Whittlesey in 1936 |
| Derwent Whittlesey | Geographer who, in 1936, prepared what is today the most widely used map of world agricultural regions= Whittlesey identified 11 main agricultural regions, plus an area where agriculture was nonexistent= Whittlesey's 11 regions are divided between 5 that are important in LDCs and 6 that are important in MDCs= Within MDCs and LDCs, Whittlesey sorted out agricultural practices by CLIMATE (thus, there are 2 maps: one is a map of climate regions and the other is a map of agricultural regions) |
| How did Whittlesey sort out agricultural practices in MDCs and LDCs? Why? | Sorted out agricultural practices by CLIMATE= Climate influences the crop that is grown, or whether animals are raised instead of growing any crop |
| Whittlesey's 2 maps | (Climate regions & Agricultural regions) Similarities between the 2 maps are striking (EX: Pastoral Nomadism is the predominant type of agriculture in the Middle East [which has dry climate] while Shifting Cultivation is the predominant type of agriculture in central Africa [which has a tropical climate])= There is a division/difference (i.e. Climate region does not logically match up with the Agricultural region) between southeastern China (warm midlatitude climate, intensive subsistence agriculture with wet rice dominant) and northeastern China (cold midlatitude climate, intensive subsistence agriculture with wet rice not dominant)= In US, much of the West is distinguished from rest of country according to climate (dry) and agriculture (livestock ranching) |
| Whittlesey's 2 maps: How does agriculture vary? | Varies between the drylands and the tropics within LDCs (as well as between the drylands of LDCs and MDCs) |
| Relationship between Agriculture and Cliamte | Is not perfect, but clearly some relationship exists between them (exemplified by Whittlesey's 2 maps)= Because of problems with environmental determinism, geographers are hesitant/cautious of placing too much emphasis on the role of climate |
| What can explain some agricultural differences in areas of similar climate (in Whittlesey's 2 maps)? | Cultural preferences explain some agricultural differences in areas of similar climate |
| Agricultural differences in areas of similar climate in Whittlesey's 2 maps: Hog Production | Is virtually nonexistent in predominantly Muslim regions because of that religion's taboo against consuming pork products |
| Agricultural differences in areas of similar climate in Whittlesey's 2 maps: Wine Production | Is relatively low in Africa and Asia (even where climate is favorable for growing grapes) because of alcohol avoidance in predominantly non-Christian countries |
| 4 Agricultural Types typical/characteristic of LDCs | Shifting Cultivation, Pastoral Nomadism, Intensive Subsistence (is divided into 2 regions [depending on the choice of crop]), Plantation |
| Shifting Cultivation | (Type of Agricultural typical/characteristic of LDCs) Practiced in much of world's Humid Low-Latitude (or "A") climate regions, which have relatively high temperatures and abundant rainfall= Predominates in the Amazon area of South America, Central & West Africa, and Southeast Asia (including Indochina, Indonesia, New Guinea)= Is practiced by 250 million people across 36 million square kilometers (14 million square miles)= Bears little relation to the agriculture practiced in the MDRs ("more developed regions") of Western Europe and North America, or even in other LDCs such as China |
| Why is Shifting Cultivation called "Shifting Cultivation" rather than "Shifting Agriculture"? | Is a matter of scale= We use the term "CULTIVATION" (as in "cultivate a garden") because "AGRICULTURE" implies greater use of tools and animals and more sophisticated modification of the landscape |
| Shifting Cultivation: 2 Distinguishing Characteristics | Farmers clear land for planting by slashing vegetation and burning the debris (="Slash and Burn Agriculture")= Farmers grow crops on a cleared field for only a few years until soil nutrients are depleted and then leave it "FALLOW" (="nothing planted") for many years so the soil can recover |
| Slash-and-Burn Agriculture | (Characteristic of "Shifting Cultivation") Farmers clear land for planting by slashing vegetation and burning the debris |
| Fallow | "Nothing Planted" |
| Shifting Cultivation: Describe the people who practice this type of cultivation | Live in small villages and grow food on the surrounding land (which the village controls)= Well organized boundaries usually separate neighboring villages |
| Shifting Cultivation: Describe the process | Each year, villagers designate an area (surrounding the settlement) for planting= Before planting, they must remove the dense vegetation that typically covers tropical land= Using axes, they cut most of the trees (sparing only those that are economically useful)= An efficient strategy they use is to cut selected large trees which bring down smaller trees that may have been weakened by notching= Use a machete or other long knife to clear away the undergrowth= On a windless day, the debris is burned under carefully controlled conditions= The rains wash the fresh ashes into the soil, providing needed nutrients= The cleared area is known by many different names in different regions (including "SWIDDEN", "ladang", "milpa", "chena", "kaingin")= Before planting, fields are prepared by hand (sometimes with help of a simple implement like a hoe [plows and animals are rarely used])= The only fertilizer generally available is POTASH (potassium) from burning the debris when the site is cleared= Little weeding is done the 1st year that a cleared patch of land is farmed (weeds may be cleared with a hoe in later years) |
| Swidden | (Shifting Cultivation) One of many different names for the newly cleared area for farming (the cleared area is known by many different names in different regions) |
| Shifting Cultivation: Describe Swiddens (i.e. the newly cleared land) | Can support crops only briefly (usually 3 years or less)= In many regions, the most productive harvest comes in the 2nd year after burning= From then on, soil nutrients are rapidly depleted and the land becomes too infertile to nourish crops= Rapid weed growth also contributes to the abandonment of a swidden after a few years |
| Shifting Cultivation: What happens when the Swidden is no longer fertile? | Villagers identify a new site and begin clearing it= They leave the old site uncropped for many years (allowing it to become overrun again by natural vegetation)= The field is not actually abandoned (villagers will return to the site someday [perhaps as few as 6 years or as many as 20 years later] to begin the process of clearing the land again)= In the meantime, they may still care for fruit-bearing trees on the site |
| Shifting Cultivation: What happens if a cleared area (i.e. Swidden) outside a village is too small to provide food for the entire population? | Some of the people may establish a new village and practice shifting cultivation there= Some farmers may move temporarily to another settlement if the field they are clearing that year is |
| Shifting Cultivation: What happens if the field that farmers are clearing that year is distant? | Some farmers may move temporarily to another settlement if the field they are clearing that year is distant |
| Shifting Cultivation: Crops | The types of crops grown by each village vary by local custom and taste= Predominant crops include upland rice, maize (corn) and manioc (cassava), and millet and sorghum= Yams, sugarcane, plantain, and vegetables are also grown in some regions (these crops may have begun in 1 region of shifting cultivation but then diffused to other areas in recent years) |
| Shifting Cultivation: Predominant crops grown in Southeast Asia | Include upland rice |
| Shifting Cultivation: Predominant crops grown in South America | Include maize (corn) and manioc (cassava) |
| Shifting Cultivation: Predominant crops grown in Africa | Include millet and sorghum |
| Shifting Cultivation: Kayapo people of Brazil's Amazon tropical rainforest | Do not arrange crops in the rectangular fields and rows that are familiar to us= They plant in concentric rings= First plant sweet potatoes and yams in the inner area= Then plant in successive rings corn and rice, manioc, and more yams= The outermost ring contains papaya, banana, pineapple, mango, cotton, and beans= Plants that require more nutrients are located in the outer ring (it is here that the leafy crowns of cut trees fall when the field is cleared, and their rotting releases more nutrients into the soil)= In later yearas, the inner area of potatoes and yams expands to replace corn and rice |
| Shifting Cultivation: How much is grown | Most families grow only for their own needs so 1 swidden may contain a large variety of intermingled crops (which are harvested individually at the best time)= Sometimes, families may specialize in a few crops and trade with villagers who have a surplus of others |
| Shifting Cultivation: Describe farm fields | In shifting cultivation, a "farm field" appears much more chaotic than do fields in MDCs (where a single crop [e.g. corn or wheat] may grow over an extensive area) |
| Shifting Cultivation: Ownership and use of land | Traditionally, land is owned by the village as a whole rather than separately by each resident= The chief or ruling council allocates a patch of land to each family and allows it to retain the output= Individuals may also have right to own/protect specific trees surrounding the village= Private individuals now own the land in some communities (especially in Latin America) |
| Shifting Cultivation: How much of the world's land area does it occupy? How many people engage in it? | Occupies 1/4 of world's land area (a higher % than any other type of agriculture)= However, less than 5% of the world's people engage in shifting cultivation= The gap between the % of people and land area is not surprising because the practice of moving from one field to another every couple of yearas requires more land per person than do other types of agriculture |
| Future of Shifting Cultivation in the tropics | Land devoted to shifting cultivation is declining in the tropics at the rate of 75,000 square kilometers (30,000 square miles), or 0.2% per year (according to the UN)= The amount of Earth's surface allocated to tropical rainforests has already been reduced to less than 1/2 of its original area |
| What is Shifting Cultivating being replaced by? | Logging, cattle ranching, and cultivation of cash crops= Selling timber to builders or raising beef cattle for fast-food restaurants is a more effective development strategy than maintaining shifting cultivation |
| Shifting Cultivation: World Bank | Until recently (i.e. no longer support), World Bank supported deforeestation with loans to finance development schemes that required clearing forests |
| Shifting Cultivation: LDC's current opinion | See shifting cultivation as an inefficient way to grow food in a hungry world (for, compared to other forms of agriculture, shifting cultivation can support only a small population in an area without causing environmental damage) |
| (Even) At its best, what do critics of Shifting Cultivation see it as? | A preliminary (i.e. small/minor event preceding a bigger event) step in economic development= Pioneers use shifting cultivation to clear forests in the tropics and to open land for development where permanent agriculture never existed= People unable to find agricultural land elsewhere can migrate to the tropical forests and initially practice Shifting Cultivation= Critics say it then should be replaced by more sophisticated agricultural techniques that yield more per land area |
| What do proponents/defenders of Shifting Cultivation consider Shifting Cultivation to be? | Consider it the most environmentally sound approach for the tropics= Practices used in other forms of agriculture (such as using fertilizers and pesticides and permanently clearing fields) may damage the soild, cause severe erosion, and upset balanced ecosystems |
| Shifting Cultivation: Global Warming | Large-scale destruction of the rain forests also may contribute to global warming= When large #s of trees are cut, their burning/decay release large amounts of carbon dioxide (this gas can build up in the atmosphere, acting like the window glass in a greenhouse to trap solar energy in the atmosphere, resulting in the "GREENHOUSE EFFECT") |
| What could the elimination of Shifting Cultivation upset? | Could also upset the traditional local diversity of cultures in the tropics= The activities of Shifting Cultivation are intertwined with other social/religious/political/various folk customs and a drastic change in the agricultural economy could disrupt other activities of daily life |
| Importance of Tropical Rain Forests | As the importance of tropical rain forests to the global environment has become recognized, LDCs have been pressured to restrict further destruction of them |
| Importance of Tropical Rain Forests: Bolivia | Bolivia, an LDC, agreed to set aside 1.5 million hectares (3.7 million acres) in a forest reserve in exchange for cancellation of $650,000,000 of its debt to MDCs |
| Importance of Tropical Rain Forests: Brazil | (Brazil is an LDC) Recently/currently, deforestation in Brazil's Amazon rain forest has increased from 2.7 million hectares (7 million acres) per year during 1990s to 3.1 million hectares (8 million acres) since 2000 |
| Pastoral Nomadism | (The word "PASTORAL" refers to sheep herding) Form of subsistence agriculture based on the herding of domesticated animals= Is adapted to dry climates (where planting crops is impossible) |
| Pastoral Nomads: Where do they live? | Mainly in the large belt of arid and semiarid land that includes North Africa, the Middle East, and parts of Central Asia= (Examples of nomadic groups include the Bedouins of Saudi Arabia and North Africa, the Masai of East Africa, etc.) |
| Pastoral Nomadism: Global land use, population | Only 15 million people are pastoral nomads= However, they sparsely occupy 20% of Earth's land area |
| Pastoral Nomadism: Characteristics | Unlike other subsistence farmers, pastoral nomads depend on animals rather than crops for survival (animals provide milk, their skins/hair are used for clothing/tents)= However, like other subsistence farmers, pastoral nomads consume mostly grain rather than meat (their animals are usually not slaughtered [although dead ones may be consumed]) |
| Pastoral Nomadism: What do nomads think of their herd? | To nomads, the size of their herd is both an important measure of power and prestige and their main security during adverse environmental conditions |
| Pastoral Nomadism: Obtaining Grain | Some pastoral nomads get grain from sedentary subsistence farmers in exchange for animal products= However, more often part of a nomadic group (perhaps the women & children) may plant crops at a fixed location while the rest of the group wanders with the herd= Nomads might hire workers to practice sedentary agriculture in return for grain and protection= Other nomads might sow grain in recently flooded areas and return later in the year to harvest the crop= Another strategy is to remain in 1 place and cultivate the land when rainfall is abundant (then, during periods too dry to grow crops, the group can increase the size of the heard and migrate in search of food & water) |
| Pastoral Nomadism: Choice of Animals | Nomads select type and # of animals for the herd according to local cultural & physical characteristics= Choice depends on the relative prestige of animals and species ability to adapt to a particular climate/vegetation |
| Pastoral Nomadism: Desired animals in North Africa & Middle East | Camel is most often desired in North Africa and the Middle East (followed by sheep and goats) |
| Pastoral Nomadism: Desired animals in Central Asia | The horse is very important |
| Pastoral Nomadism: Camel | (Is most often desired in North Africa and the Middle East) Is well suited to arid climates because it can go long periods without water, carry heavy baggage, and move rapidly= However, it is extremely bothered by flies and sleeping sickness and has a relatively long gestation period (= time for embryo to develop) at about 12 months from conception to birth |
| Pastoral Nomadism: Goats | Need more water than camels but are tough/agile and can survive on virtually any vegetation (no matter how poor) |
| Pastoral Nomadism: Sheep | Relatively slow moving= More affected by climatic changes= Require more water and are more selective as to which plants they will eat than Camels and Goats |
| Pastoral Nomadism: # of animals necessary to to support nomadic families | Minimum # of animals necessary to support each family varies according to the particular group and animal= The typical family needs 25-60 goats or sheep or 10-25 camels |
| Pastoral Nomadism: Movements | Do not wander randomly across landscape but have a strong sense of territoriality= Every group controls piece of territory and will invade another group's territory only in emergency or if war is declared |
| Pastoral Nomadism: What is the goal of each nomadic group? Reality | Is to control a territory big enough to contain the forage & water needed for survival= The actual amount of land a group controls depends on its wealth and power |
| Pastoral Nomadism: Migration Patterns | The precise migration patterns evolve from intimate knowledge of the area's physical/cultural characteristics= Groups often divide into herding units of 5 or 6 families and choose routs based on the most likely water sources during the various seasons of the year= Selection of routs varies in unusually wet/dry years and is influenced by condition of their animals and area's political stability |
| Transhumance | (Practiced by some Pastoral Nomads) Is seasonal migration of livestock between mountains and low-land pasture areas |
| Pasture | Is grass or other plants grown for feeding grazing animals as well as land used for grazing= Sheep or other animals may pasture in alpine meadows in the summer and be herded back down into valleys for winter pasture |
| Pastoral Nomadism: What/how did agricultural experts regard/think of it in the past? | Regarded Pastoral Nomadism as a stage in the evolution of agriculture (between the hunters and gatherers who migrated across Earth's surface in search of food, and sedentary farmers who cultivate grain in 1 place)= Because they had domesticated animals but not plants, Pastoral Nomads were considered more advanced than hunters and gatherers but less advanced than settled farmers |
| Pastoral Nomadism: What/how do agricultural experts regard/think of it now? | Pastoral Nomadism is now recognized as an offshoot of Sedentary Agriculture (not as a primitive precursor of it)= Is simply a practical way of survivng on land that receives too little rain for cultivation of crops= Domestication of animals (which is the basis for pastoral nomadism) was achieved originally by sedentary farmers, not by nomadic hunters (Pastoral Nomads thus had to be familiar with sedentary farming [and in many cases they practiced it]) |
| Pastoral Nomadism: Present and Future | Today, pastoral nomadism is a declining form of agriculture (partly a victim of modern technology)= Before recent transportation/communications inventions, pastoral nomads play importnt role as carriers of goods/info. across the sparsely inhabited drylands= Nomads used to be most powerful inhabitants of the drylands but now (with modern weapons) national governments can control the nomadic population more effectively |
| Pastoral Nomadism: Current relation with the Government | Government has tried to resettle nomads= Efforts have been very vigorous in China, Kazakhstan, and many Middle Eastern countries (including Egypt, Israel, Saudi Arabia, Syria)= Nomads are reluctant to cooperate (so these countries have experienced difficulty in trying to force settlement in collectives and cooperatives) |
| Why do governments force groups to give up pastoral nomadism? | Because they want the land for other uses= Land that can be irrigated is converted from nomadic to sedentary agriculture (in some cases, the mining and petroleum industries now operate in drylands formerly occupied by pastoral nomads) |
| Pastoral Nomadism: What are governments encouraging/forcing nomads to do? Result | Some nomads are encouraged to try sedentary agriculture or to work for mining/petroleum companies= Others are still allowed to move about (but only within ranches of fixed boundaries)= RESULT: In future, Pastoral Nomadism will be increasingly confined to areas that cannot be irrigated or that lack valuable raw materials |
| Shifting Cultivation and Pastoral Nomadism | Are forms of SUBSISTENCE AGRICULTURE found in regions of LOW DENSITY |
| Intensive Subsistence Agriculture | (Term "INTENSIVE" implies that farmers must work more intensively to subsist on a parcel of land) Because 3/4 of world's people live in LDCs, another form of subsistence agriculture (i.e. form that is different than the forms of subsistence agriculture such as Shifting Cultivation and Pastoral Nomadism) is needed to feed most of them (this form is called "Intensive Subsistence Agriculture") |
| Intensive Subsistence Agriculture: Where is it practiced | Practiced by farmers in densely populated East, South, and Southeast Asia= The typical farm in Asia's intensive subsistence agriculture regions is much smaller than elsewhere in the world= Many Asian farmers own many fragmented plots (often a result of dividng individual holdings among several children over several centuries) |
| Agricultural Density | Ratio of farmers to arable land |
| Intensive Subsistence Agriculture: Agricultural Density in parts of East & South Asia | Because the Agricultural Density in these areas are so high, families must produce enough food for their survival from a very small area of land |
| Intensive Subsistence Agriculture: How do families in parts of East & South Asia (where the Agricultural Density is very high) produce enough food for their survival when they must produce the food from a very small area of land? | They do this through careful agricultural practices refined over thousands of years in response to local environmental/cultural patterns= Most of work is done by hand/with animals rather than with machines (partly due to abundant labor, but largely from lack of funds to buy equipment) |
| Intensive Subsistence Agriculture: How do intensive subsistence farmers maximize food production? | They waste virtually no land= Corners of fields & irregularly shaped pieces of land are planted rather then left idle= Paths/roads are kept as narrow as possible to minimize loss of arable land= Livestock are rarely permitted to graze on land that could be used to plant crops= Little grain is grown to feed the animals |
| Intensive Subsistence Agriculture: The Intensive Agriculture Region of Asia | Can be divided between areas where wet rice dominates and areas where it does not= Wet rice occupies small % of Asia's agricultural land but is the region's most important source of food |
| Wet Rice | Refers to practice of planting rice on dry land in a nursery and then moving the seedlings to a flooded field to promote growth |
| Intensive Wet-Rice Farming in Asia | Is the dominant type of agriculture in Southeast China, East India, much of Southeast Asia |
| Intensive Subsistence Agriculture: Successful production of large yields of rice | Is an elaborate process that is time consuming and done mostly by hand= Consumers of the rice also perform the work and all family members (including children) contribute to the effort |
| Steps in growing rice: Step 1 | (Intensive Subsistence Agriculture) Farmer prepares field for planting using a plow drawn by water buffalo or oxen)= The use of a plow and animal power is one characteristic that distinguishes Subsistence Agriculture from Shifting Cultivation |
| Steps in growing rice: Step 2 | (Intensive Subsistence Agriculture) The plowed land is then flooded with water= The water is collected from rainfall, river overflow, or irrigation= Too much/little can damage crop (is a serious problem for farmers in South Asia who depend on monsoon rains which do not always arrive at the same time each summer)= Before planting, dikes & canals are repaired to ensure the right quantity of water in the field |
| Sawah | (Intensive Subsistence Agriculture) Is the name given to the flooded field (in rice production) in the Austronesian language widely spoken in Indonesia, including Java |
| Paddy | (Intensive Subsistence Agriculture) Is what Europeans and Norther Americans frequently (but INCORRECTLY) call the flooded field (in rice production)= "PADDY" is the Malay word for wet rice |
| What is the customary way to plant rice? | (Intensive Subsistence Agriculture) Is to grow seedlings on dry land in a nursery and then transplant the seedlings into the flooded field = Typically, 1/10 of a "Sawah" is devoted to the cultivation of seedlings= After 1 month, they are transferred to the rest of the field= Rice plants grow submerged in water for about 3/4 of the growing period |
| What is another method of planting rice (besides the customary way)? Where is it used | (Intensive Subsistence Agriculture) Another method is to broadcast dry seeds by scattering them through the field= This method is somewhat used in South Asia |
| How are rice plants harvested? | (Intensive Subsistence Agriculture) Are harvested by hand (usually with knives)= To separate the "CHAFF" (="the husks") from the seeds, the heads are "THRESHED" by beating them on the ground or treading on them barefoot= The threshed rice is placed in a tray, and the lighter chaff is "WINNOWED" (="allowed to be blown away by the wind")= If the rice is to be eaten directly by the farmer, the "HULL" (= "outer covering") is removed by mortar and pestle= Rice that is sold commercially is often "WHITENED AND POLISHED" (= process that removes some nutrients but leaves rice more pleasing in appearance/taste to many consumers) |
| Where is wet rice most easily grown? Why? Result | (Intensive Subsistence Agriculture) Most easily grown on flat land because the plants are submerged in water much of the time= RESULT: Most wet-rice cultivation occurs in river valleys and deltas= However, pressure of population growth in parts of East Asia has forced expansion of areas under rice cultivation= One method of making more land suitable for growing rice is to terrace the hillsides of river valleys |
| Double Cropping | (Intensive Subsistence Agriculture) Process used in parts of Asia= Is the process of using land even more intensively by obtaining 2 harvests per year from 1 field= Is common in places that have warm winters (EX: South China and Taiwan) but is rare in India (where most areas have dry winters)= Typically involves alternating between WET RICE (grown in the summer when precipitation is higher) and wheat, barley, or another DRY CROP (grown in the drier winter season)= Crops other than rice can be grown in the wet-rice region in the summer on non-irrigated land |
| Intensive Subsistence Agriculture: When/where/why is Wet Rice not dominant in Asia | Climate prevents farmers from growing wet rice in parts of Asia (especially where summer precipitation levels are too low and winters are too harsh)= Agriculture in much of interior India and northeast China is devoted to crops other than wet rice= Aside from what is grown, this region shares most of the characteristics of intensive subsistence agriculture with the wet-rice region |
| Aside from what is grown, are the regions of Asia where Wet Rice is not grown/dominant (interior India and northeast China) similar to the wet-rice region? | Aside from what is grown, this non-growing wet rice region shares most of the characteristics of intensive subsistence agriculture with the wet-rice region= Land is used intensively and worked mainly by human power with assistance of some hand implements and animals= Wheat is most important crop followed by barley (various other grains and legumes are grown for household consumption [including millet, oats, corn, kaoliang, sorghum, soybeans])= Also grow some cash crops (crops sold for $) such as cotton, flax, hemp, tobacco |
| What is important about milder parts of the region where wet rice does not dominate? | More than 1 harvest can be obtained some years through skilled use of "CROP ROTATION"= In colder climates, wheat or another crop is planted in the spring and harvested in the fall (however, NO crops can be sown through the winter!!!) |
| Crop Rotation | Practice of rotating use of diff. fields from crop to crop each year to avoid exhausting the soil |
| Ownership of agricultural land in China since the Communist Revolution in 1949 | Since the Revolution, private individuals have owned little agricultural land in China= Instead, the Communist gov. organized agricultural producer communes (typically consisted of many villages of several hundred people)= The gov. hoped that (by combining many small fields into a single large unit) it would promote agricultural efficiency (because scarce equipment/animals could be shared, larger improvement projects [EX: flood control, water storage, terracing] could be completed)= In reality, productivity did not increase as much as gov. expected since people worked less efficiently for the commune than when working for themselves |
| China's "Agricultural Communes" today | China has dismantled them= The communes still hold legal title to agricultural land but villagers sign contracts entitling them to farm portions of the land as private individuals= Chinese farmers may sell to others the right to use the land and to pass on the right to their children= Reorganization has been hard since irrigation systems, equipment, and other infrastructure were developed to serve large communal farms rather than small individually managed ones (which cannot afford to operate & maintain the machinery)= However, production has increased greatly |
| Plantation Farming | Is a form of commercial agriculture found in the tropics and subtropics (especially in Latin America, Africa, and Asia)= Although generally situated in LDCs, plantations are often owned/operated by Europeans/North Americans and grow crops for sale mainly in MDCs |
| Plantation | Is a large farm that specializes in 1 or 2 crops= Cotton, sugarcane, coffee, rubber, and tobacco are among most important crops grown on plantations= Also produced in LARGE quantities are cocoa, jute, bananas, tea, coconuts, palm oil |
| Latin American Plantations | More likely to grow coffee, sugarcane, and bananas |
| Asian Plantations | More likely to provide rubber and palm oil |
| Where are Plantations located? Result | Because often situated in sparsely settled locations, must import workers and provide them with food/housing/social services |
| Plantation Farming: Work Load | Plantation managers try to spread work as evenly as possible throughout year to make full use of the large labor force= Where the climate permits, more than 1 crop is planted/harvested during the year |
| Rubber-Tree Plantations | Try to spread task of tapping the trees throughout the year |
| What types of crops are less likely to be grown on large plantations today than in the past? | Crops like tobacco/cotton/sugarcane which can be planted only ONCE a year |
| Plantation Farming: Processing Crops | Crops are normally processed at the plantation before shipping because processed goods are less bulky and are thus cheaper to ship long distances to the North American and European markets |
| Plantation Farming: US | Until Civil War, plantations were important in south US (where the main crop was cotton [followed by tobacco and sugarcane])= Demand for cotton dramatically increased after establishment of textile factories in England at start of Industrial Revolution in late 18th century= Cotton production was stimulated by improvement of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney in 1793 and development of new varieties of cotton that were hardier and easier to pick= Slaves brought from Africa performed most of labor until abolition of slavery and defeat of South in Civil War= Since then, plantations declined in the US (they were subdivided and either sold to individual farmers or worked by tenant farmers) |
| Commercial Agriculture in MDCs | Can be divided into 6 main types: Mixed crops and livestock; Dairying; Grain Farming; Livestock Ranching; Mediterranean Agriculture; Gardening and Fruit Culture= (Each type is predominant in distinctive regions within MDCs [depending largely on climate]) |
| Mixed Crop and Livestock Farming | Most common form of commercial agriculture in the US West of the Appalachians and East of 98º West Longitude and in much of Europe from France to Russia |
| Mixed Crop and Livestock Farming: Most distinctive characteristic | Is its integration of crops and livestock= Most of crops are fed to animals rather than consumed directly by humans= In turn, livestock supply manure to improve soil fertility to grow more crops |
| Mixed Crop Farming: Describe a typical mixed commercial farm | Devotes almost all land area to growing crops but derives more than 3/4 of its income from sale of animal products (EX: beef, milk, eggs)= In US, pigs are often bred directly on the farms, while cattle may be brought in to be fattened on corn |
| Mixed Crop and Livestock Farming: What does it permit farmers to do? | Distribute workload more evenly through the year= Fields require less attention in winter than in spring (when crops are planted) and in the fall (when they are harvested)= However, livestock require year-long attention |
| Mixed Crop and Livestock Farming: What does a mix of crops and livestock reduce? | Reduces seasonal variations in income= Most income form crops comes during harvest season but livestock products can be sold throughout the year |
| Crop Rotation | (Mixed Crop and Livestock Farming typically involve Crop Rotation)= The farm is divided into many fields and each field is planted on a planned cycle (often many years)= Crop planted changes from 1 year to the next (often going through a cycle of 2 or more crops and a year of fallow before the cycle is repeated) |
| Crop Rotation: What does it help maintain? Why? | The fertility of a field because different crops deplete soil of certain nutrients but restore others |
| Crop Rotation: What does it contrast with? | Shifting Cultivation (in which nutrients depleted from field are restored only by leaving field fallow/uncropped for many years)= In any given year, crops can't be planted in most of an area's fields so overall production in Shifting Cultivation is much lower than in Mixed Commercial Farming |
| Where was a 2-field crop-rotation system developed? | In Northern Europe in 15th century= A "CEREAL GRAIN" (such as oats, wheat, rye, barley) was planted in Field A one year, while Field B was left fallow= Next year, Field B was planted but A left fallow, etc.= |
| When was a 3-field crop-rotation system introduced? | Early 18th century= 1st field was planted with a winter cereal, 2nd field with a spring cereal, and 3rd field was left fallow= RESULT: Each field yielded 4 harvests every 6 years (compared to 3 every 6 years under the 2-field system) |
| Where was a 4-field crop-rotation system developed? | Used in Northwest Europe by 18th century= 1st year, farmer could plant a ROOT CROP (e.g. turnips) in Field A, a CEREAL CROP in Field B, a "REST" CROP (e.g. Clover [helps restore the field]) in Field C, and a CEREAL CROP in Field D= 2nd year, farmer might select a cereal for Field A, a rest crop for Field B, a cereal for Field C, and a root for Field D= Rotation would continue for 2 more years before cycle would start again= Each field thus passed through a cycle of 4 crops (Root, Cereal, Rest Crop, another Cereal) |
| 4-Field Crop Rotation: Crop use/sale | Cereals like wheat and barley were sold for flour and beer production= Straw (the stalks remaining after the heads of wheat are threshed) was retained for animal bedding= Root crops (e.g. turnips) were fed to the animals during the winter= Rest crops (e.g. clover) were used for cattle grazing and restoration of nitrogen to the soil |
| What crop do Mixed Crop & Livestock Farmers in the US often choose? | Select corn most often because of higher yields per area than other crops= Some of corn is consumed by people either directly or as oil/margarine/other food products= Most corn is fed to pigs and cattle |
| Corn Belt | (Extends from Ohio to the Dakotas [with its center in Iowa])= Is the most important Mixed Crop & Livestock Farming region in the US= Is called the "Corn Belt" because 1/2 of the crop land is planted in corn (maize) |
| What is the 2nd most important crop in the US mixed commercial farming region? | Soybeans= Like corn, soybeans are sometimes used to make products consumed directly by people (but mostly to make animal feed)= Tofu (made from soybean milk) is a major food source (especially for people in China and Japan)= Soybean oil is widely used in US foods but as a hidden ningredient |
| Dairy Farming | Is the most important commercial agriculture practiced on farms near the large urban areas of the Northeast US, Southeast Canada, & Northwest Europe= Dairying has also become important type of farming in South and East Asia= Recently, India has become the world's largest milk producer (ahead of traditional leader US)= Also, Pakistan and China are set to pass Russia as 3rd and 4th largest milk producers (US being 2nd) |
| Milk Consumption: History | Traditionally, fresh milk was rarely consumed except directly on the farm or in nearby villages= With rapid growth of cities in MDCs during 19th cneutry, demand for sale of milk to urban residents increased= Rising incomes allowed urban residents to buy milk products (which were once considered luxuries)= In 20th century, most of world's milk production was clustered in handful of MDCs |
| Dairy Farming in LDCs | Share of the world's dairy farming conducted in LDCs has dramatically risen recently (from 21% in 1970 to 44% in 2005) |
| Dairy Farming in MDCs | Dairying is most important type of commercial agriculture in 1st ring outside large cities because of transportation factors= Dairy Farms must be closer to their market than other products since milk is highly perishable |
| Milkshed | Is the ring surrounding a city from which milk can be supplied without spoiling |
| Dairy Farming: Improvements in transportation | Have allowed dairying to be undertaken farther from the market= Until 1840s (when railroads were 1st used for transporting dairy products) Milksheds rarely had radius beyond 50 kilometers (30 miles)= Today, refrigerated railcars & trucks enable farmers to ship milk more than 500 kilometers (300 miles)= RESULT: Nearly every farm in the Northeast and Northwest US, Europe is within the Milkshed of at least 1 urban area |
| Dairy Farming: What products do some dairy farms specialize in (other than milk)? | Originally, butter & cheese were made directly on the farm (mainly from excess milk produced in the summer) before modern agricultural methods evend the flow of milk through the year= In the 20th century, dairy farmers have generally chosen to specialize either in fresh milk production or other products (e.g. butter and cheese) |
| Regional Differences in Dairy Products within the US | Choice of product varies within US dairy region depending on whether the farms are within the Milkshed of a large urban area= Proximity of northeastern farmers to several large markets accounts for these regional differences (between East and West US) |
| The farther a farm is from large urban concentrations... | The smaller the % of output devoted to fresh milk |
| Farms located farther from consumers are what? Why? | More likely to sell their output to processors who make butter, cheese, or dried/evaporated/condensed milk= REASON: These products keep fresh longer than milk does and thus can be safely shipped from remote farms |
| Dairy in Eastern US | Almost all milk is sold to consumers living in NY, Philadelphia, Boston, and other large urban areas |
| Dairy in Western US | Most milk is processed into cheese and butter (EX: Most of milk in Wisconsin is processed, compared to only 5% in Pennsylvania) |
| Dairy Farming: Countries and products | Countries tend to specialize in certain products |
| Dairy Farming: New Zealand | Is world's largest per capita producer of dairy products= Devotes 5% to liquid milk, compared to more than 50% in the United Kingdom= New Zealand farmers dont sell much liquid milk because the country is too far from North America and Northwest Europe (the 2 largest relatively wealthy population concentrations) |
| Dairy Farming: Sale of products | Dairy farmers (like other commercial farmers) usually don't sell their products directly to consumers= Rather, often sell milk to WHOLESALERS who distribute it in turn to RETAILERS= Retailers then sell milk to consumers in shops or at home= Farmers also sell milk to butter and cheese manufacturers |
| Challenges for Dairy Farmers | Dairy Farmers (like other commercial farmers) face economic difficulties because of declining revenues and rising costs= Distinctive features of dairy farming have exacerbated the economic difficulties |
| What specific features of dairy farming have worsened the economic difficulties? | Dairy farming is labor intensive (since cows must be milked TWICE a day, every day [although the actual milking can be done by machines, dairy farming still requires constant attention throughout the year])= Feeding the cows in the winter (when they may be unable to graze on grass) is expensive (in Northwest Europe and in Northeaster US, farmers generally buy hay/grain for winter feed= In western part of US dairy region, crops are more likely to be grown in summer and stored for winter feed on the same farm) |
| # of farms with milk cows in US | # declined by 2/3 between 1980-2000= Departing/quitting dairy farmers typically cite lack of profitability and excessive workload as reasons for leaving= However, the # of dairy cows declined by only 1/8, and the production actually increased by 1/4 (yields per cow seriously increased) |
| Grain | Is the seed from various grasses (e.g. wheat, corn, oats, barley, rice, millet, etc.)= Some form of grain IS the major crop on most farms |
| Commercial Grain Agriculture is distinguished from Mixed Crop & Livestock Farming because... | Crops on a grain farm are grown mainly for consumption by humans rather than by livestock (farms in LDCs also grow crops for human consumption [but the output is directly consumed by the farmers]) |
| Commercial Grain Farms | Sell their output to manufacturers of food products (e.g. breakfast cereals, snack-food makers) |
| What is the most important crop grown? Why? | Wheat= Is used to make bread flour= Can often be sold for higher price than other grains (e.g. rye, oats, barley) and has more uses as human food= Can be stored relatively easily without spoiling= Can be transported long distances (because wheat has a relatively high value per unit weight, it can be shipped profitably from remote farms to markets)= Unlike other agricultural products, wheat is grown largely for international trade and is the world's leading export crop |
| Breadbasket | Name given to the North American prairies (since US and Canada account for about 1/2 of world's wheat export) |
| What is a major source of economic and political strength for the US and Canada? | The ability to provide food for many people elsewhere in the world |
| Grain Production | US is largest commercial producer of grain= Large-scale commercial grain production is found in only few other countries (including Canada, argentina, Australia, France, United Kingdom) |
| Where are commercial grain farms generally located? | In regions too dry for mixed crop and livestock agriculture |
| Where is large-scale grain production concentrated within North America? | 3 areas: Winter-Wheat Belt; Spring-Wheat Belt; Palouse Region of Washington State= 2/3 of the wheat grown in the US comes either from the winter or the spring wheat belt |
| Winter Wheat Area | (1 of 3 areas within North America where large-scale grain production is concentrated) Extends through Kansas, Colorado, and Oklahoma= In this area, the crop is planted in the autumn and develops a strong root system before growth stops for the winter= The wheat survives the winter (especially if it is insulated beneath a snow blanket) and is ripe by the beginning of summer |
| Spring-Wheat Belt | (1 of 3 areas within North America where large-scale grain production is concentrated) Extends through the Dakotas, Montana, and southern Saskatchewan in Canada= Because winters are usually too severe for winter wheat in this region, spring wheat is planted in spring and harvested in later summer |
| Palouse Region | (1 of 3 areas within North America where large-scale grain production is concentrated) Extends through Washington State |
| Describe large-scale grain production in MDCs | Like other commercial farming ventures in MDCs, is heavily mechanized, conducted on big farms, oriented to consumer preferences |
| McCormick Reaper | A REAPER is a machine that cuts grain standing in the field (invented in 1830s)= First permitted large-scale wheat production |
| Combine | Is a machine that performs in 1 operation the 3 tasks of reaping, threshing, and cleaning (used today instead of the REAPER) |
| Effort required to grow wheat | Unlike work on a mixed crop and livestock farm, the effort required to grow wheat is not uniform throughout the year= Some individuals/firms may thus have 2 sets of fields (1 in the spring-wheat belt and 1 in the winter-wheat belt)= Because the planting/harvesting in the 2 regions occur at diff. times of they year, the workload can be distributed throughout the year= Also, the same machinery can be used in the 2 regions (thus spreading the cost of the expensive equipment)= Combine companies start working in Oklahoma in early summer and work their way northward |
| Ranching | Is the commercial grazing of livestock over an extensive area= This form of agriculture is adapted to semiarid or arid land= Is practiced in MDCs where the vegetation is too sparse and the soil too poor to support crops |
| Cattle Ranching: US Popular Culture | Its prominence in popular culture (especially in Hollywood films/TV) has helped to draw attention to this form of commercial farming and has has also served to illustrate (although sometimes in romanticized ways) the crucial role that ranching played in history/settlement of areas of US |
| Cattle Ranching: Texas | (Popular Culture) Cattle ranching in Texas (as glamorized in popular culture [especially in US]) did actually dominate commercial agriculture, but only for short period (1867-1885) |
| Beginning of US Cattle Ranching | Cattle first brought to Americas by Columbus on his 2nd voyage (because cattle were sufficiently hardy to survive the ocean crossing)= Cattle lived in the wild and multiplied/thrived on abundant grazing lands on the frontiers of North and South America |
| Who actually began the practice of "ranching" in the Americas | Immigrants from Spain and Portugal (are the only European countries with a tradition of cattle ranching)= Began ranching in the Americas= They taught the practice to settlers from northern Europe and the Eastern US who moved to Texas and other FRONTIER territories in the 19th century |
| Cattle Ranching: When/why did it expand in the US? What was the challenge? | Expanded in US because of demand for beef in Easter Coast cities during 1860s= Challenge for ranchers was to transport the cattle from Texas to eastern markets= Ranchers who could get their cattle to Chicago were paid $30-40 per head, compared to only $3-4 per head in Texas= Once in Chicago, the cattle could be slaughtered/processed by meat-packing companies and sold to consumers in the East |
| Cattle Ranching: Describe the transporting of cattle to market in Chicago | To reach Chicago, cattle were driven on hoof by cowboys over trails from Texas to the nearest railhead (distances were many hundred kilometers)= There, they were driven into cattle cars for the rest of their journey |
| Joseph G. McCoy | (Is whom the expression "the real McCoy" was based) In 1867, the year that the western end of the railroad line (which was used to transport cattle) reached Abilene, Kansas, he launched a massive construction effort to provide Abilene with homes/shops/stockyards= RESULT: The # of cattle brought into Abilene increased from 1,000 in 1867 to 150,000 in 1869= Was the first mayor of the city of Abilene |
| Abilene | (Abilene, Kansas) Was developed into a frontier town by Joseph G. McCoy= Like other frontier towns, became a haven where cowboys let off steam= Gunfights/prostitution/gambling/alcoholism were rampant until McCoy hired James B. "Wild Bill" Hickock as sheriff to clean up the town |
| What became of Abilene, Kansas | After a few years, the terminus/end of the railroad moved farther west (Wichita, Caldwell, Dodge City, and other towns in Kansas took turns as the main destination for cattle driven north on trails from Texas)= Became a ghost town for a while (later, however, became a prosperous market center when use of the surrounding land changed from cattle grazing to crop growing) |
| Chisholm Trail | Was the most famous route from Texas northward to the rail line= Began near Brownsville at the Mexican border and extended northward through Texas, Indian Territory (now Oklahoma) and Kansas= The trail had many branches but the main line extended through Austin, Waco, Fort Worth, & Caldwell= (Today, US Route 81 follows the course of this trail) |
| Western Trail | Became more important than the "Chisholm Trail" in the 1870s when the railroad terminus moved farther west |
| Cattle Ranching during the 1880s | During 1880s, declined in importance after it came in conflict with Sedentary Agriculture |
| The Code of the West | Was adhered to by most early US ranchers (although the system had no official legal status)= Under the code, ranchers had "RANGE RIGHTS" (=their cattle could graze on any open land and had access to scarce water sources and grasslands)= The early cattle ranchers in West owned little land, only cattle |
| Range Wars | (1880s [Convinced ranchers to switch from cattle drives to fixed-location ranching]) US Government (which owned most of the land used for open grazing) began to sell it to farmers to grow crops (leaving cattle ranchers with no legal claim to it)= For a few years, ranchers tried to drive out farmers by cutting fences and then illegally erecting their own fences on public land= However, BARBED WIRE (1st commercially produced in 1873) proved to be farmers' most powerful weapon= Farmers ultimately won the battle and ranchers were compelled to buy/lease land to accommodate their cattle= Large cattle ranches were made (mainly on land that was too dry to support crops)= Today, 60% of cattle grazing today takes place on land leased from the US government |
| Besides the "Range Wars", what also induced ranchers to switch from cattle drives to fixed-location ranching? | A change in the predominant breed of cattle (switched from Longhorns to cattle breeds introduced from Europe) |
| Longhorns | Were the 1st cattle used by ranchers= Were strong animals able to survive the long-distance drive along the trails with little weight loss= However, were susceptible to cattle ticks, parasitic insects that carried a fever and were difficult to remove, and the meat of longhorns was of poor quality |
| What types of cattle were used following Longhorns? | New cattle breeds introduced from Europe (e.g. Hereford)= Offered better meat but were not adapted to the old ranching system= The new breeds could not survive the winter by open grazing (unlike the longhorns)= Instead, crops had to be grown or feed purchased for them= Could not be driven long distances= Required more water= However, these breeds thrived once open grazing was replaced by fixed ranching (and long-distance trail drives and rail journeys to Chicago gave way to short rail or truck trips to nearby meat packers) |
| How and what has land in the US been converted to? | With spread of irrigation techniques and hardier crops, land in US has been converted from ranching to crop growing |
| Why was the land in the US converted from ranching to crop growing? | Ranching generates low income per area of land (although it has lower operating costs) |
| How are cattle currently raised? | Cattle are still raised on ranches but are frequently sent for fattening on farms or to local feed lots along major railroad/highway routs rather than directly to meat processors |
| What is the current average size of a ranch? | Average size of a ranch is large because the capacity of the land to support cattle is low in much of the semiarid West= Large ranches may be owned by meat-processing companies rather than individuals |
| Commercial Ranching outside the US | Is conducted in other MDCs |
| Ranching: Europe | Ranching is rare in Europe, except in Spain and Portugal |
| Ranching: South America | In South America, southern Brazil, Uruguay, and a big portion of the PAMPAS (=vast grassy plains of northern/central Argentina) of Argentina are devoted to grazing cattle and sheep |
| Ranching: Argentina | (South America) The cattle industry grew fast in (the PAMPAS) of Argentina because the land devoted to ranching was relatively accessible to the ocean and meat could be transported to overseas markets= The humid climate on the PAMPAS provides more shoots and shrubs on a given area of land than in the US West |
| What stimulated the growth of ranching in Argentina? | (South America) Was stimulated because more cattle could graze on a given area of land in the pampas of Argentina than in the US West |
| Ranching: What happened to the land in Argentina in the 19th century? | (South America) Land was divided into large holdings (in contrast to the US practice of permitting common grazing on public land) |
| Describe ranching in Argentina and the US recently? | Ranching has declined in both areas because growing crops is more profitable except on very dry lands |
| Ranching: Australia | Interior of Australia was opened for grazing in the 19th century (although sheep are more common than cattle)= Like US West, Australia's drylands went through many land-use changes |
| Ranches in the Middle East, New Zealand, and South Africa | Are more likely to have sheep (just like ranching in Australia) |
| What land-use changes did Australia's drylands go through? | Until 11860s, shepherding was practiced on the open range= Then large ranches with fixed boundaries were established, stock was improved, and water facilities were expanded= Later, ranching was confined to drier lands, and WHEAT (yielded greater profits per hectare than ranching) was planted where precipitation levels permitted |
| Ranching: Analysis on a global scale | Ranching has followed similar stages around the world= First was the herding of animals over open ranges (in a semi-nomadic style)= Then ranching was transformed into fixed farming by dividing the open land into ranches (many of the farms converted to growing crops and ranching was confined to the drier lands)= To survive, the remaining ranches experimented with new methods of breeding and sources of water/feed |
| What is Ranching today? Meaning? | Ranching became part of the meat-processing industry rather than an economic activity carried out on isolated farms= MEANING: Thus, Commercial Ranching differs from Pastoral Nomadism (the form of animal herding practiced in LDCs) |
| Mediterranean Agriculture | Exists mainly on lands that border the mediterranean Sea in Southern Europe, North Africa, and western Asia= Farmers in CA, central Chile, the southwestern part of South Africa, & southwestern Australia also practice Mediterranean agriculture |
| Characteristics of Mediterranean areas | Mediterranean areas share similar physical environment= All mediterranean area borders a sea, are on west coasts of continents (except for some lands surrounding the Mediterranean Sea)= Prevailing sea winds provide moisture and moderate the winter temperatures= Summers are hot/dry (but sea breezes provide some relief)= The land is very hilly and mountains often plunge directly to the sea (leaving very narrow strips of flat land along the coast |
| Mediterranean Agriculture: Income from products | Farmers derive smaller % of income from animal products in the Mediterranean region than in the mixed crop and livestock region |
| Mediterranean Agriculture: Livestock Production | Is hindered during summer by the lack of water/good grazing land |
| Transhumance | (Mediterranean Agriculture) Traditionally used by some farmers living along the Mediterranean Sea to raise animals (although the practice is now less common)= Under this practice, animals (mainly sheep and goats) are kept on the coastal plains in the winter and transferred to the hills in the summer (done in response to summer's hinderance on livestock in this region) |
| Mediterranean Agriculture: Crop Production | Most crops in Mediterranean lands are grown for human consumption rather than for animal feed |
| Horticulture | Is the growing of fruits, vegetables, and flowers= Is practiced at higher levels in CA than any/all other Mediterranean climates (for horticulture is practiced in other Mediterranean climates besides CA) |
| Mediterranean Farming: Commercial Base | Horticulture and Tree Crops form the commercial base of Mediterranean farming= Most of world's olives/grapes/fruits/vegetables are grown in Mediterranean agriculture areas |
| Mediterranean Farming: Determining which crops to grow/plant | A combination of local/physical/cultural characteristics determines which crops are grown in each area= The hilly landscape encourages farmers to plant a variety of crops within 1 farming area |
| Lands bordering the Mediterranean Sea | (Mediterranean Farming) In these lands, the 2 most important cash crops are Olives and Grapes= 2/3 of the world's wine is produced in countries that border the Mediterranean Sea, especially Italy, France, and Spain (Mediterranean agriculture regions elsewhere in world produce remaining 1/3)= The lands near the Mediterranean Sea are also responsible for a big % of the world's supply of OLIVES (an important source of cooking oil) |
| Mediterranean Farming: Cereals | Despite the importance of olives and grapes to commercial farms bordering the Mediterranean Sea, about 1/2 of the land is devoted to growing CEREALS (especially WHEAT for pasta and bread)= As in US "Winter-Wheat Belt", the seeds are sown in the fall and harvested in early summer= After cultivation, cash crops are planted on some of the land while the remainder is left fallow for a year or two to conserve moisture in the soil |
| California: Cereals | (Mediterranean Farming) Cereals occupy much lower % of the cultivated land in CA (which has a Mediterranean Climate) than in other Mediterranean climates= Rather, much of CA farmland is devoted to fruit and vegetable horticulture |
| Mediterranean Farming: California | CA supplies much of the citrus fruits, tree nuts, and DECIDUOUS (="fall off when ripe") fruits consumed in US= HORTICULTURE is practiced in other Mediterranean climates but not to the extent found in CA |
| California: Describe "Urban Growth" and its effect on agriculture | The rapid growth of urban areas in CA (especially LA) has converted high-quality agricultural land into housing developments |
| Describe the effect that "Urban Growth" has had in/on CA? What has been/being done? Future? | The loss of farmland (due to rapid growth of urban areas) has, thus far, been offset by the expansion of agriculture into arid lands= However, farming in drylands requires massive irrigation to provide water= Thus, in future, agriculture may face harsher/more competition to divert the Southwest's increasingly scarce water supply |
| US Southeast: Agriculture | Commercial Gardening and Fruit Farming is the predominant type of agriculture in the US Southeast= Region has long growing seasons and humid climate and is accessible to the large markets of NY, Philadelphia, Washington, and other Eastern US urban areas= Type of agriculture practiced in this region is often called "TRUCK FARMING" |
| Truck Farming | Name given to the type of agriculture practiced in US Southeast because "TRUCK" was a Middle English word meaning"bartering" or "the exchange of commodities" |
| Truck Farms: Products | Truck Farms grow many of the fruits and vegetables that consumers demand in MDCs (e.g. apples, asparagus, cherries, lettuce, mushrooms, tomatoes)= Some of these fruits/vegetables are sold fresh to consumers, but MOST are sold to large processors for canning/freezing |
| Truck Farms: Description/Characteristics | Are highly efficient large-scale operations that take full advantage of machines at every stage of the growing process= Truck Farms are willing to experiment with new varieties/seeds/fertilizers/other inputs to maximize efficiency= Labor costs are kept down by hiring migrant workers (some are undocumented immigrants from Mexico who work for very low wages)= Farms often specialize in a few crops (and only a handful of farms may dominate national output of some fruits and vegetables) |
| Specialty Farming | (Truck Farming) Is a form of Truck Farming= Has spread to New England= Farmers are profitably growing crops that have limited but increasing demand among affluent consumers (such as asparagus, peppers, mushrooms, strawberries, nursery plants)= "Speciality Farming" represents a profitable alternative for New England farmers (at a time when dairy farming is declining because of relatively high operating costs and low milk prices) |
| Commercial Farming: Importance of access to markets | Because purpose of commercial farming is to sell produce OFF the farm, the distance from the farm to the market influences the farmer's choice of crop to plant= Best example of importance of proximity to the market is Dairy Farming because milk spoils quickly= Crops that can be shipped long distances without spoiling are grown farther from the market |
| Von Thunen Model | Used by geographers to help explain the importance of proximity to market in the choice of crops on commercial farms= Was first proposed in 1826 by Johann Heinrich von Thunen (a farmer in northern Germany) in a book titled "The Isolated State" |
| According to the Von Thunen Model, what does a commercial farmer initially do? | According to the model (which was later modified by geographers), a commercial farmer initially considers which crops to cultivate and which animals to raise based on market location |
| Von Thunen Model: Choosing an enterprise | In choosing an enterprise, a commercial farmer compares 2 costs: The cost of the land VS. the cost of transporting product to market= First, a farmer identifies a crop that can be sold for more than the land cost (assume that farmer's land costs $100 per hectare per year)= Farmer would consider planting wheat if output from 1 hectare could be marketed for more tan $100 that year= Another crop (e.g. corn) will also be considered if they yield from 1 hectare can sell for more than $100= A farmer will not always plant the crop that sells for the highest price per hectare= The choice further depends on distance of farmer's land from the central market city |
| Distance to market | Is important (when choosing an enterprise) because the cost of transporting each product is different |
| Gross profit from sale of wheat grown on 1 hectare of land NOT including transportation costs | Wheat can be grown for $0.25 per kilogram= Yield per hectare of wheat is 1,000 kilograms= Gross profit is $250 per hectare ($0.25 per kilogram X 1,000 kilograms per hectare) |
| Gross profit from sale of wheat grown on 1 hectare of land INCLUDING transportation costs | Cost of transporting 1,000 kilograms of wheat to the market is $62.50 per kilometer= Net profit from sale of 1,000 kilograms of wheat grown on a farm located 1 kilometer from the market is $187.50 ($250 gross profit [$62.50 per kilometer transport costs])= Net profit from sale of 1,000 kilograms of wheat grown on farm located 4 kilometers from market is $0 ($250 gross profit [$62.50 per kilometer X 4 kilometers]) |
| Where would a farmer make a profit growing wheat? | On land located less than 4 kilometers from the market= Beyond 4 kilometers, wheat is not profitable because the cost of transporting it exceeds the gross profit |
| Von Thunen Model: What must a commercial farmer do to determine the most profitable crop? Result | Consider 2 sets of monetary values: The value of the yield per hectare; The cost of transporting the yield per hectare= RESULT: These calculations show that farms located closer to the market tend to select crops with higher transportation costs per hectare of output, while more distant farms are more likely to select crops that can be transported less expensively |
| What did Von Thunen base his general model of the spatial arrangement of different crops on? | His experiences as an owner of a large estate in northern Germany during early 19th century= Found that specific crops were grown in different rings around the cities in the area |
| Von Thunen Model: 1st Ring out from the Cities | Market-Oriented Gardens and Milk Producers were located in the 1st ring out from the cities= These products are expensive to deliver and must reach the market quickly because they are perishable |
| Von Thunen Model: 2nd Ring out from the Cities | Contained wood lots, where timber was cut for construction and fuel= Closeness to market is important for this commodity because of its weight |
| Von Thunen Model: Next Rings out from the Cities | Were used for various crops and for pasture= The specific commodity was rotated from 1 year to next |
| Von Thunen Model: Outermost Ring out from the Cities | Was devoted exclusively to animal grazing (which requires lots of space) |
| What did Von Thunen not do (i.e. flaws with model)? | He did not consider site or human factors in his model= The model assumed that all land in a study area had similar site characteristics and was of uniform quality (although he recognized that the model could vary according to topography and other distinctive physical conditions [EX: a river might modify the shape of the rings because transportation costs change when products are shipped by water routes rather than over roads])= Model also failed to consider that social customs and government policies influence the attractiveness of plants and animals for a commercial farmer |
| Von Thunen Model: What does/can it apply to? | Von Thunen developed the model for a SMALL region with a SINGLE market center= However, the model is also applicable on a national or global scale (EX: farmers in relatively remote locations who wish to sell their output in the major markets of Western Europe and North America are less likely to grow highly perishable and bulky products) |
| Challenges facing Commercial and Subsistence Farmers | Both face similar challenges= In both regions, farmers have difficulty generating enough income to continue farming= However, the underly reasons are different= Commercial farmers are producing a surplus of food= However, subsitence farmers are barely able to produce enough food to survive |
| Commercial Farmers: Challenges | (Are victims of their own success) Having figured out how to produce large quantities of food, commercial farmers face low prices for their output= Government subsidies help prop up farm income (many believe that future health of commercial farming rests with embracing more sustainable practices) |
| What do Commercial farmers suffer from? Why? | Suffer from low incomes because they can produce much more food than is demanded by consumers in MDCs |
| What can create/cause a surplus of food? | A surplus of food can be produced because of widespread adoption of efficient agricultural practices= New seeds/fertilizers/pesticides/mechanical equipment/management practices have enabled farmers to obtain greatly increased yields per area of land |
| What area of farming demonstrates the growth in productivity in the US? | Dairy farming= US had 20 million dairy cows producing 57 million metric tons (63 million tons) of milk a year during 1960s= Number of dairy cows in US declined to 9 million in 2005 but production increased to 80 million metric tons (90 million tons)= MEANING: Yield per cow has tripled over the past several decades |
| Commercial Farming: Supply and Demand in MDCs | Although the food supply has increased in MDCs, demand has remained constant because the market for most products in already saturated (= "a condition in which a quantity no longer responds to some external influence") |
| In MDCs, when/why won't the demand for/consumption of a particular commodity change (significantly)? | In MDCs, consumption of a particular commodity may not change much if the price changes (EX: Americans don't switch from wheat to corn products if the price of corn falls more rapidly than wheat)= Also, Demand is stagnant for most agricultural products in MDCs because of low population growth |
| Describe the US government's 3 policies that are meant to address the problem of excess productive capacity | (Overproduction in Commercial Farming) 1st, farmers are encouraged to avoid producing crops that are in excess supply= 2nd, the government pays farmers when certain commodity prices are low= 3rd, the government buys surplus production and sells or donates it to foreign governments |
| Describe: US government encourages farmers to avoid producing crops that are in excess supply (to avoid overproduction in Commercial Farming) | Because soil erosion is constant threat, the gov. encourages planting fallow crops (e.g. clover) to restore nutrients to the soil and to help hold the soil in place= These crops can be used for hay, forage for pigs, or to produce seeds for sale |
| Describe: US government pays farmers when certain commodity prices are low (to avoid overproduction in Commercial Farming) | The gov. sets a target price for the commodity and pays farmers the difference between the price they receive in the market and a target price set by the gov. as a fair level for the commodity= The target prices are calcualted to give farmers the same price for the commodity today as in the past (when compared to other consumer goods and services) |
| Describe: US government buys surplus production (to avoid overproduction in Commercial Farming) | The gov. buys surplus production and sells or donates it to foreign governments= Also, low-income Americans get food stamps in part to stimulate their purchase of additional food |
| Describe the amount of $ the US spends annually on farm subsidies | (In 2005, US spent $25 billion annually on farm subsidies) Annual spending varies greatly from one year to the next= Subsidy payments are lower in years when market prices rise and production is down (typically as a result of poor weather conditions in the US or political problems in other countries) |
| Europe: Farming and Subsidizing | Farming in Europe is subsidized more than in the US= More farmers receive subsidies in Europe (and they receive more than American farmers)= The high subsidies are a legacy of a long-standing commitment by the European Union to maintain agriculture in its member states (especially in France)= Supporters point to the preservation of rural village life in parts of Europe, while Critics charge that Europeans pay needlessly high prices for food as a result of the subsidies) |
| What points out a fundamental irony in worldwide agricultural patterns? | Government policies in MDCs point out a fundamental irony in worldwide agricultural patterns= In MDCs (e.g. US), farmers are encouraged to grow less food= However, LDCs struggle to increase food production to match the rate of growth in the population |
| Sustainable Agriculture | (Some commercial farmers are converting their operations to "Sustainable Agriculture") Is an agricultural practice that preserves and enhances environmental quality= Farmers practicing this often generate lower revenues than do conventional farmers, but they also have lower costs |
| Organic Farming | Is an increasingly popular form of SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE= However, organic farms (especially the larger ones) may rely in part on non-sustainable practices (e.g. use of fossil fuels to operate tractors) |
| Department of Agriculture | In the US, the "Department of Agriculture" sets national standards for what constitutes organic= Many state/private agencies have been empowered to certify that a farm complies with the organic standards= About 0.2% of US farmland was certified organic in 2003, including 4% of apple orchards and 4% of lettuce fields= % have been lower for the leading field crops (only 0.4% of wheat fields, 0.2% of soybean fields, and 0.1% of corn fields were certified organic in 2003) |
| Worldwide, what % of farmland was classified as organic in 2006? | Worldwide, 0.23% of farmland was classified as organic (including 0.4% in MDCs and 0.2% in LDCs)= Australia was the leader (with organic farming practiced on 2.7% of its farmland) |
| What 3 principal practices distinguish Sustainable Agriculture (and at its best, Organic Farming) from Conventional Agriculture? | Sensitive land management= Limited use of chemicals= Better integration of crops and livestock |
| Ridge Tillage | (Sensitive Land Management) Is used by/in Sustainable Agriculture to protect soil= Is a system of planting crops on ridge tops= Crops are planted on 10-20 centimeter (4-8 inch) ridges that are formed during cultivation or after harvest= Crop is planted on the same ridges, in the same rows, year after year= Ridge Tillage is attractive because of LOWER PRODUCTION COSTS and GREATER SOIL CONSERVATION |
| Ridge Tillage: Production Costs | Production costs are lower with ridge tillage because it requires less investment in tractors and other machinery than conventional planting (EX: An area that would be prepared for planting under Conventional Farming with 3-5 tractors can be prepared for ridge tillage with only 1-2 tractors) |
| Ridge Tillage: Primary Tool | Primary tool is a "Row-Crop Cultivator" that can form ridges= There is no need for a plow/field cultivator/really powerful tractors |
| Ridge Tillage: Space between rows | Space between rows needs to match the distance between wheels of the machinery= If 75 centimeters (30 inches) are left between rows, tractor tires are often on 150-centimeter (120-inch) centers= "WHEEL SPACERS" are available from most manufacturers to fit the required spacing |
| Ridge Tillage: Soil Disturbance | Ridge Tillage features a minimum of soil disturbance from harvest to the next planting= A "Compaction-Free Zone" is created under each ridge and in some row middles= Keeping the trafficked area separate from the crop-growing area improves soil properties= Over several years the soil will tend to have increased organic matter, greater water holding capacity, and more earthworms (the channels left by earthworms and decaying roots enhance drainage) |
| Ridge Tillage vs. Conventional Farming | Ridge Tillage compares favorably with Conventional Farming for yields while lowering the cost of production= Although Ridge Tillage is more labor intensive than other systems, it is profitable on a per-acre basis (EX: In Iowa, Ridge Tillage has gained favor for production of organic and herbicide-free soybeans [which sell for more than regular soybeans]) |
| "Roundup-Ready" Seeds | (In Conventional Agriculture, these types of seeds [i.e. genetically modified seeds] are often used) Seeds that are genetically modified to survive when herbicides and insecticides are sprayedon the fields to kill weeds and insects= These types of seeds are known as "Roundup-Ready" seeds because its creator Monsanto Corp. sells it under the brand name "Roundup" |
| "Roundup-Ready" Seeds: Impact on environment | Has adverse impacts on soil and water quality= Also, widespread use of "Roundup-Ready" seeds is causing some weeds to become resistant to the herbicide |
| "Roundup-Ready" Seeds: US use in 2003 | "Roundup-Ready" seeds were planted in 80% of all soybean acreage, 54% of all cotton acreage, 12% of all corn acreage |
| Sustainable Agriculture: Chemicals/Herbicides | Unlike Conventional Agriculture (which uses "Roundup-Ready" seeds), Sustainable Agriculture involves application of limited if any herbicides to control weeds= In principle, farmers can control weeds without chemicals (although it requires additional time/expense that few farmers can afford) |
| Researchers have found that "X" yields higher returns per acre, rather than "Y" | Researchers have found that combining mechanical weed control with some chemicals yields higher returns per acre than relying solely on 1 of the 2 methods (used in Sustainable and Conventional Agriculture) |
| Ridge Tillage: Chemicals | Ridge Tilling promotes decreased use of chemicals (which can be applied only to the ridges and not the entire field) |
| Chemicals: What combination may be the best option for many farmers? | Combining HERBICIDE BANDING with CULTIVATING may be the best option for many farmers |
| Herbicide Banding | Applies chemicals in narrow bands over crop rows |
| Sustainable Agriculture: Integrated Crop and Livestock | Sustainable Agriculture tries to integrate the growing of crops and the raising of livestock as much as possible at the level of the individual farm= Animals consume crops grown on the farm and are not confined to small pens |
| What is the predominant form of farming in many MDCs? | Mixed Crop and Livestock= Is the predominant form of farming in many MDCs (including the "Corn Belt" of US) |
| Conventional Agriculture: Integrated Crop and Livestock | In Conventional Farming, integration between crops and livestock often takes place through intermediaries rather than inside an individual farm= MEANING: Many farmers in the "Mixed Crop and Livestock" region actually choose to only grow crops or only raise animals= They sell their crops off the farm or purchase feed for their animals from outside suppliers |
| What does "Integration of Crops and Livestock" reflect? | Reflects a return to the historical practice of "Mixed Crop and Livestock Farming" (in which growing crops and raising animals were regarded as complementary activities on the farm)= This was common practice for centuries until mid-1990s when technology/government policy/economics encouraged farmers to become more specialized |
| What is Sustainable Agriculture sensitive to? | The complexities of biological and economic interdependencies between crops and livestock |
| What are the complexities of biological and economic interdependencies between crops and livestock? | 1st complexity is finding the correct # and distribution of livestock for the area based on the landscape and forage sources= 2nd complexity in integrating crops and livestock for Sustainable Agriculture is animal confinement= 3rd complexity in sustainable integration of crops and livestock is management of extreme weather conditions= 4th and final complexity is that feeding and marketing are flexible in animal production systems |
| Sustainable Agriculture: Complexity in finding the correct number and distribution of livestock for the area based on the landscape and forage sources | (1st complexity of biological and economic interdependencies between crops and livestock) Prolonged concentration of livestock in a specific location can result in permanent loss of vegetative cover (thus farmer needs to move the animals to reduce overuse in some areas)= However, growing row crops on the more level land while confining pastures to steeper slopes reduces soil erosion (so it may be necessary to tolerate loss of vegetation in specific locations)= Farmer may need to balance need of securing livestock inside fences with the convenience of tilling large unfenced fields through the use of temporary fencing |
| Sustainable Agriculture: Complexity in animal confinement | (2nd complexity of biological and economic interdependencies between crops and livestock) Animal Confinement is the 2nd complexity in integrating crops and livestock for Sustainable Agriculture= The moral and ethical debate regarding animal welfare is intense for confined livestock production systems= Confined livestock are source of surface/ground water pollutants, particularly where the density of animals is high= Expensive waste management facilities are a necessary cost of confined production systems= If animals aren't confined, manure can contribute to soil fertility (however, quality of life in nearby communities may be adversely affected by the smell) |
| Sustainable Agriculture: Complexity in the management of extreme weather conditions | (3rd complexity of biological and economic interdependencies between crops and livestock) 3rd complexity in Sustainable Integration of crops and livestock is management of extreme weather conditions= May need to reduce herd size during periods of short/long-term droughts= However, livestock can buffer the negative impacts of low rainfall periods by consuming crops that in conventional farming would be left as failures= Especially in Mediterranean climates (e.g. CA), properly managed grazing significantly reduces fire hazards by reducing fuel build-up in grasslands and brushlands |
| Sustainable Agriculture: Complexity in the flexibility of feeding and marketing in animal production systems | (3rd complexity of biological and economic interdependencies between crops and livestock) Feeding and marketing are flexible in animal production systems= This can help cushion farmers against trade/price fluctuations and (in conjunction/relation with cropping operations) make more efficient use of farm labor= Feed costs are largest single variable cost in any livestock operation= While most of the feed may come from other enterprises on the ranch, some purchased feed is often imported from off the farm= Feed costs can be kept to a minimum by monitoring animal condition and performance and understanding seasonal variations in feed and forage quality on the farm |
