| A | B |
|---|
| US Congress | Is the "First Branch" of gov. under Article I of Constitution= Among world's most important rep. bodies= Is the only national representative assembly that can be said to govern= Uses its powers to shape policies and defend its goals against the executive branch |
| How does US Congress differ from most of the world's representative bodies? | World's representative bodies only represent (i.e. their governmental functions consist mainly of affirming/legitimating the national leadership's decisions)= US Congress is the only national representative body that actually possesses powers of governance= EX: While US Congress never accedes/accepts/folds to the president's budget proposals without making major changes, both the British House of Commons and the Japanese Diet (are both national representative bodies) always accept the budget exactly as proposed by the government |
| Executive and Legislature in US | In the separation-of-powers regime institutionalized by the US Constitution, the US executive cannot govern alone= The legislature (in particular) actively participates (EX: US Congress never accedes to the president's budget proposals without making major changes [follows from the institution principle]) |
| Richard Neustadt's quote about the executive and the legislature in the US | "The executive and the legislature in the US are "separated by institutions sharing power" |
| Parliamentary Regimes | Unlike the executive and legislature in the US (that are separated institutions sharing power), the executive (in parliamentary regimes) controls its majority in parliament |
| Congress: Authority/power | Has authority over the 2 most important powers given to any government: THE POWER OF FORCE (control over the nation's military forces) and THE POWER OVER MONEY |
| Article I, Section 8 | Congress can "lay and collect Taxes," deal with indebtedness and bankruptcy, impose duties, borrow and coin money, and generally control the nation's purse strings= Also may "provide for the common Defense and general Welfare," regulate interstate commerce, undertake public works, acquire & control federal lands, promote science and "useful Arts" (pertaining mainly to patents and copyrights), and regulate the militia |
| Congress: Power in realm of Foreign Policy | In realm of foreign policy, Congress has power to declare war, deal with piracy, regulate foreign commerce, raise/regulate the armed forces and military installations |
| Congress's powers over war and the military | These powers are supreme= Even to the president, as commander in chief of the military must obey the laws/orders of Congress if Congress chooses to assert its constitutional authority (in past century, Congress has usually surrendered this authority to the president) |
| Senate: Power | Has power to approve treaties (by 2/3 vote) and the appointment of ambassadors |
| What is Congress's most important power? | Congress is allowed to make laws "which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the US, or in any Department or Office thereof" |
| Modern Presidency | Is a more powerful institution than it was 2 centuries ago (thus the reason why many of the legislative powers [especially those dealing with war and spending] seem to belong to the president is because modern presidents do exercise great authority in these areas)= Much of the "new/expanded" power of the modern president has come from Congress (either because Congress has delegated the power to the president by law or because Congress has allowed/urged presidents to be more active in these areas)= This helps explain why today the executive branch seems like a more important branch of government than Congress (still, the constitutional powers of Congress remain intact in the document) |
| Congressional Power and Congressional Representation | Congressional Power cannot be separated from congressional representation= There is a reciprocal relationship between the two: Without its array of powers, Congress could do little to represent effectively the views and interests of its constituents; while at same time, the power of Congress is ultimately a function of its capacity to represent important groups/forces in US society effectively |
| Congress: Representation | Congress is most important rep. institution in US gov.= Task of representation is not easy (i.e. views about what constitutes fair and effective representation differ and constituents can make very different kinds of demands on their representatives [members of Congress must consider these diverse views/demands as they represent their districts]) |
| Congress: Member's primary responsibility | Is to the DISTRICT (to his/her CONSTITUENCY) not to the congressional leadership, a party, or even Congress itself |
| Constituency | The district making up the area from which an official is selected |
| How do Legislators generally vary? | Vary in the weight they give to personal priorities and the things their campaign contributors/past supporters desire= Most Legislators are a mix of DELEGATES and TRUSTEES |
| Delegates | Legislators who see themselves as perfect agents of others= They have been elected to do the bidding of those who sent them to the legislature |
| Trustees | Legislators who see themselves as having been selected by their fellow citizens to do what they think is "right" |
| Agency Representation | Type of representation according to which representatives are held accountable to their constituents if they fail to represent them properly (i.e. constituents have the power to hire and fire their representatives [who act as their agents])= Ability to "punish" (i.e. hire/fire) representatives and hold them accountable for failing to represent their constituents properly provides representatives with an incentive to provide good representation (even if their opinions/views differ from those they represent) |
| Frequent Competitive Elections | (Agency Representation) Is an important means by which constituents hold their representatives to account and keep them responsive to their own views and preferences |
| What is the idea of a representative as an agent similar to? How? | (Agency Representation) The relationship of a lawyer and client (similar/comparable with respect to the criteria of performance) |
| What do people expect of representatives at the very least? Why? | (Agency Representation) One expects at very least that each rep. will constantly be seeking to discover the interests of the constituency and will be speaking for those interests in Congress and other centers of gov.= We expect this because we believe members of Congress (like politicians everywhere) are ambitious |
| Congress: Ambition | (Agency Representation) Members of Congress are ambitious= For many, this ambition is satisfied by simply maintaing a hold on their present office and advancing up the rungs of power in that body= Some may be looking ahead to the "next level" (to higher legislative office [as when a representative seeks a Senate seat, or to an executive office {as when a legislator returns home to run for the state's governorship, or at the highest level, when a legislator seeks the presidency}]) |
| Why are legislators eager to serve the interests of the constituents? | (Agency Representation) To either enhance his/her prospects of contract renewal at the next election or to improve the chances of moving to another level |
| How does the Agency conception of representation work? | (Agency Representation) Works in proportion to the ambition of politicians (as "agents") and the capacity of constituents (as "principals") to reward/punish on the basis of the legislator's performance and reputation (this latter capacity depends on the quality of political competition which in turn is a product of the electoral and campaign finance systems) |
| Bicameral Legislature | (The framers of the Constitution provided for a Bicameral Legislature) Is a legislative body consisting of 2 chambers (i.e. HOUSE and SENATE)= Framers intended both chambers (HOUSE and SENATE) to represent a different constituency |
| House of Representatives: Framer's Goal | (1 of the 2 chambers of legislative body) Members of the House were to be "close to the people," elected popularly ever 2 years |
| Senate: Framer's Goal | (1 of the 2 chambers of legislative body) Members of the Senate were appointed by state legislatures for 6 year terms= Were to represent the elite members of society= Were to be more attuned to the interests of PROPERTY than those of the population |
| House and Senate: Current/present characteristics | Today, members of both chambers are elected directly by the people |
| House of Representatives: Members/Membership TODAY | Has 435 members elected from districts apportioned according to the population |
| Senate: Members/Membership TODAY | Has 100 members elected by state (with 2 senators from each)= Senators continue to have longer terms in office and usually represent much larger/diverse constituencies than do their counterparts (="similar") in the House of Reps. |
| Senate: Role | Senate is the more deliberative (="thoughtful"/considering) of the 2 bodies= Is the forum in which any/all ideas can receive a thorough public airing |
| House: Role | House is the more centralized and organized of the 2 bodies= Is better equipped to play a routine role in the governmental process |
| House and Senate: Rules | Both play diff. roles in the legislative process= Difference stems from the diff. rules governing the 2 bodies (rules deal with power of the chambers' leaders and ability of members to specialize) |
| Effect of the rules governing the House of Representatives | Rules give House leaders more control over the legislative process and provide for House members to specialize in certain legislative areas |
| Effect of the rules governing the Senate | Rules of the much smaller Senate give its leadership little power and discourage specialization |
| What does the organization of the 2 legislative chambers represent? | (Difference between 2 chambers is an example of the INSTITUTION PRINCIPLE) The 2 legislative chambers are organized in very diff. ways, reflecting their differences in size as well as their differences in electoral rhythm, constituencies, and roles |
| House of Representatives: Organization and the Institution Principle | House members specialize= Their specialized activities occur mainly in committee proposals= The institution is organized to facilitate expeditious consideration of committee bills |
| Senate: Organization and the Institution Principle | Senators are less specialized (partly because of their more heterogeneous constituencies) and thus involve themselves in many more areas of policy than the House= Senate proceedings permit wider participation and more open-ended deliberation |
| What generates differences in how the members of both bodies of Congress develop their constituencies and exercise their powers in office? Result | Differences in length of terms and the requirements for holding office specified by the Constitution |
| House: Describe the result of the differences in the length of terms and the requirements for holding office | Members of House more effectively/frequently serve as agents of well-organized local interests with specific legislative agendas= The small size and relative homogeneity of their constituencies and the frequency with which they must seek reelection make House members more attuned than senators to the legislative needs of local interest groups |
| Senate: Describe the result of the differences in the length of terms and the requirements for holding office | Senators serve larger and more heterogeneous constituencies= RESULT: Senators are better able than members of House to serve as the agents of groups/interests organized on a statewide/national basis= Also, with longer terms in office, Senators have luxury of considering "new ideas" or seeking to bring together new coalitions of interests (rather than simply serving existing ones) |
| Framers of the Constitution: Intent for the House | That the House of Representatives would be "the people's house" and that its members would reflect/represent public opinion in a timely manner |
| Framers of the Constitution: Intent for the Senate | That the Senate should provide a balance to the more responsive House (with its narrower and more homogenous constituencies)= Senate was said to be the saucer that cools the tea, bringing deliberation/debate/inclusiveness/calm/caution to policy formulation |
| Congress: Conflict in the 2 chambers in recent years | House has exhibited much more intense partisanship and ideological division than the Senate |
| Senate: Resolution to Conflicts | Because of their diverse constituencies, Senators are more inclined to seek compromise positions that will offend as few voters and interest groups as possible |
| House: Resolution to Conflicts | With their party's domination in more homogeneous districts, members of the House are less inclined to seek compromises and more willing to stick to their partisan and ideological guns |
| Congress: Conflict in the 2 chambers during the presidency of George W. Bush | During Bush's presidency, even the Senate has grown more partisan and polarized (especially on social issues and the war in Iraq) |
| Electoral System: Representation | Representatives are highly influenced by electoral considerations |
| What 3 factors of the American electoral system affect who gets elected and what he/she does once in office? | 1st set of issues concerns who decides to run for office and which candidates have an edge over others= 2nd issue is that of the "INCUMBENCY ADVANTAGE"= Finally, the way congressional district lines are drawn can greatly affect the outcome of an election |
| Voters' choices are "X" from the start by... | Are restricted by who decides to run for office |
| In the past, who made decisions about who would run for a particular elected office? | Made by local party officials |
| Today, who decides who will run for a particular elected office? | Today, few party organizations have the power to slate candidates like they did in the past= Instead, the decision to run for Congress is a more personal choice |
| Important factors in determining who runs for office | A candidate's ambition= Also, a potential candidate may also assess whether he/she can attract enough $ to mount a credible campaign |
| kjadfl;kj | a;lsdkfj; |
| lasdlkj | ;alskdfj |
| ;alsdkfj | ;laskdfjl |
| ;kjasd;lfjjl | asdlfkj |
| ;lkajsd;fl;jf | ;laskdjf |
