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| Department of Homeland Security (DHS) | Was formed (on March 1, 2003) out of the combination of the 22 federal agencies with responsibilities for combating international terrorism in the US |
| Department of Homeland Security: What did its creation mark? | Marked the most dramatic reform of the federal bureaucracy since the establishment of the "Department of Defense" in 1947 (however, this earlier transformation took 40 years to be fully realized [a time frame that is unacceptable in the midst of a "hot" war on terrorism]) |
| Why was the Department of Homeland Security created? | After 9-11, both Republicans & Democrats knew that public was going to demand some ongoing response to the terrorist threat (beyond the military response in Afghanistan) |
| Why was a new cabinet-level agency (i.e. Department of Homeland Security) created after 9-11 and not something less dramatic? | After 9-11, a congressional investigation revealed that major security lapses/lack of coordination among the many agencies (responsible for domestic/foreign intelligence) had occurred under President Clinton and President Bush= Thus, political parties might be blamed if the gov. didn't respond aggressively enough to the terrorist threat= Also, the major alternative solution (creation of a homeland-security "czar") proved inadequate |
| Homeland-Security "Czar" | (Alternative to the new cabinet-level agency which proved inadequate) Tom Ridge (ex-gov. of Pennsylvania) did not have power to hire/fire his subordinates, didn't have budgetary authority, had little beyond his title= The lack of rules/procedures meant that Ridge had no power to shape bureaucratic outcomes (thus, the new cabinet-level agency was made) |
| Coordination | Becomes harder as # of people and diversity of goals/preferences grow |
| Department of Homeland Security: Coordination | The 22 federal agencies brought under 1 umbrella are very diverse= Each agency has gone down a particular path= Some (EX: Customs Service, Coast Guard) had developed a bureaucratic culture and an "esprit de corps" (i.e. spirit/moral) over more than 2 centuries= Others (EX: Transportation Security Administration) had grown aggressively in response to new threats= In general, it is very hard to set these agencies on a new course |
| Bureaucracies | Creation of new government agencies is a painful process= Americans depend on gov. bureaucracies to accomplish all types of achievements= Bureaucracies provide essential services that all Americans rely on= Are often ridiculed by politicians and general public |
| Criticizing Bureaucracies | Criticized as "big government"= Many federal bureaucracies come into public view only when they are charged with fraud, waste, abuse= In emergencies, the national opinion/view on bureaucracy and on big government shifts |
| National Perspective after 9-11 terrorist attacks | After 9-11 terrorist attacks, all eyes turned to Washington= Federal gov. responded by strengthening/reorganizing the bureaucracy in order to undertake a new set of responsibilities designed to keep America safe |
| What has the war on terrorism highlighted? | The extensive range of the tasks performed by the federal bureaucracy= Both routine and exceptional tasks require the organization/specialization/expertise found in bureaucracies |
| What do Americans do after a natural disaster? | After a natural disaster (EX: Hurricane Katrina in 2005), Americans look to gov. agencies to respond to the crisis |
| Federal Bureaucracy | The administrative structure that is the daily American government |
| Why are Bureaucracies commonplace/common? | Because they touch so many aspects of daily life |
| Government Bureaucracies | Implement the decisions made by the political process |
| What are Bureaucracies full of? Why | Full of ROUTINE because routine ensures that services are delivered regularly and that each agency fulfills its mandate |
| What is Bureaucracy a reflection of? | (Bureaucracy is not just about collecting trash/training cops [i.e. is NOT mechanical, boring, etc.]) Mainly, it is a reflection of political deals completed/created/established by elected politicians, turf wars among gov. agents and private-sector suppliers and contractors, policy-delivery success/failures in eyes of the public, and reactions to these by the very same elected officials who cut the deals in the first place= MEANING: It is politics through and through |
| Public Bureaucracies | Are powerful because legislatures and chief executives (and, indeed, the people) delegate to them much power to make sure a particular job is done, enabling the res of us to be freer to pursue our private ends (Public opinions/beliefs/feelings that emerged after 9-11 revealed this underlying appreciation of public bureaucracies) |
| Public's opinion of Public Bureaucracies after 9-11 | When faced with challenge of making air travel safe again, public strongly supported giving the fed. gov. responsibility for airport security (even though this meant increasing the size of the federal bureaucracy in order to make the security screeners federal workers)= Anti-bureaucratic language (in response to this) that had been very effective before 9-11 no longer resonated with a fearful public= Rather, there was widespread belief that a public bureaucracy would provide more effective protection than the cost-conscious private companies that had been charged with airport security in the past= Bureaucrats across the federal gov. felt the new appreciation for their work |
| Understanding public attitudes toward government bureaucracy | Can understand by examining one of the standard questions posed in election years by the "American National Election Studies" (ANES) |
| American National Election Studies (ANES): Its question posed in election years | As part of its survey of the American public, the ANES asks a range of questions, among them: "Do you think that people in the government waste a lot of, some of, or little of the $ we pay in taxes?"= Is not perfect for getting from the public a detailed assessment of bureaucratic performance= Still, the question allows respondents to register a blunt evaluation |
| ANES: Public's feelings toward bureaucracies during 1960s and 1970s | Public unhappiness with bureaucratic inefficiency grew during the 1960s and 1970s and became 1 of Ronald Regan's campaign themes in the 1980 election |
| ANES: Public's feelings toward bureaucracies during the administrations of Reagan, George H. W. Bush, and Clinton? Since then? | During these administrations, the unhappiness with bureaucratic inefficiency declined from 80% of the survey respondents believing government "wastes a lot" in 1980 to just over 60% in 2004= This opinion has held steady in the low 60% range for 20 years (though there was major downward blip in 2002, just after 9-11) |
| ANES: Public's feelings toward bureaucracies after 9-11 | Was short period of better public opinion= However, it appears that the public remains cynical about bureaucratic performance= The poor response of the "Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)" (part of DHS) to the hurricane crisis in the fall of 2005 and to charges of cronyism/favoritism in personnel appointments surely contributed to further cynicism |
| Despite tendency to criticize bureaucracy, most Americans recognize that... | Maintaing order in a big society is impossible without some sort of big governmental device, staffed by professionals with some expertise in public admin. |
| Administration | Positive name given to the phenomenon of when we approve of what a government agency is doing= Is the more general of the 2 terms= Refers to all the ways human beings might rationally coordinate their efforts to achieve a common goal (applies to private/public organizations) |
| Bureaucracy | Name given to the phenomenon of when we disapprove of what a government agency is doing= Refers to the actual offices, tasks, and principles of organization that are used in the most formal/sustained administration |
| Core of Bureaucracy | Is the division of labor |
| Key to Bureaucratic effectiveness | Coordination of experts performing complex tasks= If each job is specialized to gain efficiencies, then each worker must depend on the output of other workers (a dependency requiring careful allocation of jobs/resources) |
| What do Bureaucracies inevitably become? | Hierarchical (becoming like a pyramid in form) |
| Bureaucracies: Base of Pyramid | (Bureaucracies inevitably become hierarchical) Base of pyramid/the organization are workers with fewest skills/specializations= 1 supervisor can deal with a big # of these workers |
| Bureaucracies: Middle of Pyramid | (Bureaucracies inevitably become hierarchical) Middle of the pyramid (or next level above the base) has larger number of more highly specialized workers= Thus, the supervision/coordination of work involves fewer workers per supervisor |
| Bureaucracies: Top of Pyramid | (Bureaucracies inevitably become hierarchical) Toward top of the pyramid/the organization, there is a very small # of high-level executives who engage in the "management" of the organization (i.e. the organization and reorganization of all the tasks/functions, plus the allocation of the appropriate supplies and the distribution of the output of the organization to the market [if it is a private-sector organization] or to the public) |
| When used/described in a negative/disapproving manner, what does the term "Bureaucracy" do? | Conjures up images of endless paperwork, red tape, lazy/uncaring workers= However, bureaucracy represents a great human achievement |
| In what way does Bureaucracy represent a major human achievement? | By dividing up tasks, matching tasks to a labor force that develops appropriately specialized skills, routinizing procedure, and providing the incentive structure and oversight arrangements to get large # of people to operate in a coordinated/purposeful fashion, bureaucracies accomplish tasks and missions in a manner that would otherwise be unimaginable |
| Bureaucracies: In general, what do they provide? Result? | The provision of such a huge array of "GOVERNMENT GOODS" (both broad and narrow) requires organization, routines, standards (and at the end of the day, the authority that allows for someone to cut a check and put it in the mail)= Bureaucracies are created to do these things |
| What would happen to organizations if they did not bureaucratize their "X" | No large organization would be bigger than the sum of its parts (and many would be smaller) without bureaucratizing its activities |
| Bureaucracy and Complementary Programs | Bureaucracy unites/strengthens/consolidates a large range of complementary programs and insulates them from the predatory ambitions of out-of sympathy political forces |
| How long to Bureaucracies last? Why? | Bureaucracies last a very long time (almost permanent)= By creating a body of clients/members/clienteles (in the legislature, the world of interest groups, and public opinion), a bureaucracy establishes a coalition of supporters (some of whom will fight to the end to keep it in place) |
| It is a well-known rule of thumb that everyone in the political world... | Cares deeply/intensely about a subset of policies and the agencies that produce them and opposes other policies and agencies (but not with nearly the same passion)= OPPONENTS (to succeed) must clear many hurdles, while PROPONENTS (to maintain the status quo) must arrange/mobilize/marshal their forces only at a few veto points= SIMPLE: Opponents typically meet obstacle after obstacle and eventually give up their uphill battles and concentrate on protecting and expanding what they care most deeply about (which is much easer to do in a complex political system like that of the US) |
| Because it is easier (in a complex political system like that of the US) to concentrate on protecting and expanding on the things that they care most deeply about... | Both opponents and proponents of a particular set of governmental activities wage the fiercest battles at the time programs are made and a bureaucracy is created= Once created, these organizations assume a position of relative permanence |
| What does the creation of a bureau do? | Is a way to deliver gov. goods efficiently and is a device by which to tie one's hands, thereby providing a credible commitment to the long-term existence of a policy= (Thus, bureaucracy makes gov. possible with respect to efficiency and credibility) |
| "Government by offices and desks" | Conveys image of 100's of office workers shuffling millions of pieces of paper (Is correct, but we must look at what papers are being shuffled and why) |
| More than 50 years ago, Bureaucracy was defined as... | "Continuous routine business" |
| Almost any organization succeeds by reducing what? What is the problem? Result? | (Follows the definition of bureaucracy as "continuous routine business") Its work to routines, with each routine being given to a diff. specialist= But specialization separates people from one another (1 worker's output becomes another worker's input)= The timing of the relationships is essential, requiring the workers to stay in communication with each other (in fact, bureaucracy was the 1st INFORMATION NETWORK) |
| When did huge/large/voluminous routine occur? | Came as bureaucracies grew and specialized |
| As Bureaucracies have grown, the term "Bureaucrat" has come to suggest/connote what? | Sluggishness and inefficiency |
| Why do Bureaucrats (whether in public/private organizations) communicate with each other? | To coordinate all the specializations within their organization= This coordination is necessary to carry out the primary task of bureaucracy (i.e. IMPLEMENTATION) |
| Implementation | (Is the primary task of bureaucracy) Is the implementing of the objectives of the organization as laid down by its board of directors (if by a private company) or by law (if a public agency) |
| Who are the "bosses" in government? | Are ultimately the legislature and the elected chief executive |
| Describe the Principal in a Principal-Agent Relationship | It is the principal who stipulates what he wants done, relying on the agent's concern for her reputation, appropriate incentives, and other control mechanisms to secure compliance with his wishes |
| Legislative principles establish what do do what? | Establish bureaucratic agents (in departments, bureaus, agencies, institutes, and commissions of the federal government) to implement the policies promulgated by Congress and the president |
| When is implementation of rules a straightforward process? | When the bosses (Congress, especially when it is making the law) are clear in their instructions to bureaucrats= Bureaucrats translate the law into specific routines for each employee of an agency |
| What happens to routine administrative implementation when there are many bosses who disagree as to what the instructions ought to be? | The agent of multiple principals who disagree among themselves often finds them-self in a bind= The agent must chart a delicate course, trying to do the best possible job and trying not to offend any of the bosses too much= This requires another job for the bureaucrats: INTERPRETATION |
| Interpretation | Is a form of IMPLEMENTATION in that the bureaucrats have to carry out what they believe to be the intentions of their superiors |
| When are Bureaucrats engaging in lawmaking? | When they have to interpret a law before implementing it, they are in effect engaging in lawmaking |
| Congress often does what to an administrative agency? | Congress often deliberately delegates to an administrative agency the responsibility of lawmaking= Members of Congress often conclude that some area of industry needs regulating or some area of the environment needs protection, but they are unwilling/unable to specify just how that should be done= In such situations, Congress delegates to the appropriate agency a broad authority within which the bureaucrats have to make law, through the procedures of RULE MAKING and ADMINISTRATIVE ADJUDICATION |
| Rule Making | Is exactly the same as legislation (is often referred to as "Quasi-Legislation")= The rules issued by gov. agencies provide more detailed/specific indications of what a policy will actually mean= The rule-making process is a highly political process |
| When do new rules proposed by an agency take effect? | Only after a period of public comment= Reaction from people/businesses that are subject to the rules may cause an agency to modify the rules |
| What happens when rules (proposed by agencies) are approved? | They are published in the "Federal Register" and have the force of law |
| Administrative Adjudication | Is very similar to what the judiciary ordinarily does (i.e. apply rules/precedents to specific cases to settle disputes)= In administrative adjudication, the agency charges the person/business suspected of violating the law= The ruling in an adjudication dispute only applies to the specific case being considered |
| What types of agencies use administrative adjudication? Why? | Many regulatory agencies use administrative adjudication to make decisions about specific products or practices (EX: Product recalls are often result of adjudication) |
| Bureaucrats in government vs. Bureaucrats in large private organizations | Both do essentially the same things and neither type deserves the disrespect embodied in the term "Bureaucrat"= However, because of the authoritative/coercive nature of gov., many more constraints are imposed on public bureaucrats than on private bureaucrats (even when their jobs are the same) |
| Public Agencies | (Are more constrained than private bureaucrats are, even when their jobs are the same) Public Bureaucrats are required to maintain a much more thorough paper trail= Public Bureaucrats are also subject to much more access by the public (EX: newspaper reporters have access to public bureaucrats)= Citizens are given opportunities to participate in the decision-making processes of public agencies |
| Public Access to Public Agencies | Public Bureaucrats are subject to much more access by the public than are Private Bureaucrats= Public access has been vastly facilitated in past 30 years= Adoption of the "Freedom of Information Act" (FOIA) in 1966 gave ordinary citizens right of access to agency files and agency data so that they might determine whether those files (and data) contain derogatory info. about them and learn what the agency is doing in general |
| Describe citizen's opportunities to participate in the decision-making process of Public Agencies | This kind of access is limited by time/$/expertise, but it does exist and it occupies much of the time of mid-level and senior public bureaucrats= Such public exposure/access serve a purpose but also heavily cut down on the efficiency of public bureaucrats |
| What can much of the lower levels of efficiency in public agencies be attributed to? | The political, judicial, legal, and publicity restraints put on public bureaucrats |
| Why bureaucracy? | Bureaucracies enhance efficiency, are the instruments of policy implementation, and legislatures find it valuable to delegate= (besides the more conventional reasons for bureaucracy, politicians find it convenient to delegate many of the nuts-and-bolts decisions to bureaucratic agents) |
| Legislature and Bureaucratic decisions | In principle, the legislature could make all bureaucratic decisions itself (is done in some jurisdictions, like TAX POLICY) |
| Tax Policy | Is put into law/promulgated in much detail by the "House Ways and Means Committee", the "Senate Finance Committee", and the "Joint Committee on Taxation" |
| The Internal Revenue Service | Is the administrative agency charged with implementation= Engages in less discretionary activity than many other regulatory & administrative agencies (however, this is the exception) |
| What is the norm in terms of Statutory Authority in the Legislature? | The norm is for statutory authority to be delegated to the bureaucracy (sometimes with specificity but often in vague terms)= The bureaucracy is expected to fill in the gaps (however this isn't an opportunity to exercise unconstrained discretion)= The bureaucracy is expected to be guided by legislative intent= The bureaucracy will also be held to account by the legislature's oversight of bureaucratic performance (this is monitored by the staffs of relevant legislative committees [which also serve as repositories for complaints from affected parties]) |
| For the bureaucracy, what is the result of poor performance and/or the exercise of discretion inconsistent with the preferences of the important legislators? | It invites punishments/sanctions (can be mild or extreme [e.g. trimming of budgets and the clipping of authority]) |
| What are the operating parts of the bureaucratic whole? | Cabinet departments, agencies, bureaus |
| What 4 general types can the operating parts of the bureaucratic whole be separated into? | Cabinet departments= Independent Agencies= Government Corporations= Independent Regulatory Commissions |
| Organization of Departments: Top | At the TOP is the head of the department (called the "Secretary of the Department") and his/her deputy (called the "Deputy Secretary") |
| Organization of Departments: Below the "Department Head" and his/her "Deputy" | Below the "Department Head" and his/her "Deputy" are several top administrators (e.g. "The General Counsel" and "The Chief Financial Officer")= Their responsibilities cut across the various departmental functions and provide the "Secretary" with the ability to manage the entire organization |
| Organization of Departments: Below the several top administrators | Are the "Undersecretaries" and "Assistant Secretaries"= They are of equal status to the several top administrators= Each of the undersecretaries and assistant secretaries have management responsibilities for a group of "Operating Agencies" (which are arranged vertically below each of the undersecretaries) |
| Organization of Departments: Below the tier of "Undersecretaries" and "Assistant Secretaries" | ("BUREAU LEVEL" [is the name given to this next/lower tier) Is the highest level of responsibility for specialized programs= The names of these "Bureau-Level Agencies" are often very well known to the public (e.g. "The Forest Service", "The Food Safety and Inspection Service")= Sometimes, these "bureau-level agencies" are officially called "BUREAUS" (as in the FBI [which is a bureau in the Department of Justice])= Still, "BUREAU" is also the generic term for this level of administrative agency= Within the BUREAUS, there are divisions, offices, services, and units (sometimes designating agencies of the same status, sometimes designating agencies of lesser status) |
| Government agencies and Cabinet departments | Not all gov. agencies are part of cabinet departments (e.g. "Independent Agency") |
| The Independent Agency | Is a 2nd type of agency that is set up by Congress OUTSIDE the departmental structure altogether (even though the president appoints/directs the heads of this type of agency)= Usually have broad powers to provide public services that are either too expensive or too important to be left to private initiatives= (Examples of independent agencies: "The National Aeronautics and Space Administration" (NASA), "The Central Intelligence Agency" (CIA), "The Environmental Protection Agency" (EPA)) |
| Government Corporations | Are a 3rd type of government agency but are more like private businesses performing and charging for a market service (e.g. delivering the mail ["United States Postal Service"], transporting railroad passengers ["Amtrak"]) |
| Independent Regulatory Commission | Is a 4th type of agency that is given broad power/discretion to make rules |
| Describe the 1st types of Regulatory Agencies | The 1st regulatory agencies established by Congress (starting with the "Interstate Commerce Commission" in 1887) were set up as independent regulatory commissions because Congress recognized that regulatory agencies are mini-legislatures whose rules are the same as legislation but require the kind of expertise and full-time attention that is beyond the capacity of Congress |
| Describe the types of Regulatory Agencies before and after the 1960s | Until the 1960s, most of the regulatory agencies that were made by Congress (e.g. "Federal Trade Commission" [1914], "Federal Communications Commission" [1934]) were independent regulatory commissions= Beginning in the late 1960s and early 1970s, all new regulatory programs (with few exceptions [e.g. "Federal Election Commission"]) were placed within existing departments and made directly responsible to the president= Since the 1970s, no new major regulatory programs have been established |
| Considering that there are too many agencies in the executive branch to identify/describe, what is an easier/simpler way of classifying agencies? | Instead of dividing the bureaucracy into 4 general types, an alternative classification organizes each agency by its mission, as defined by its jurisdiction: clientele agencies, agencies for maintenance of the Union, regulatory agencies, redistributive agencies |
| When is an Administrative Agency called a "Clientele Agency" | Although all Administrative Agencies have clienteles, certain agencies are singled out and called CLIENTELE AGENCIES because they are directed by law to foster and promote the interests of their clientele |
| Clientele Agency | Departments/bureaus of government whose mission is to promote, serve, or represent a particular interests (i.e. they support and foster their respective clientele)= (The "Department of Agriculture" is an example of a clientele agency, and so are the Departments of the Interior, Labor, and Commerce) |
| The Department of Agriculture | (Is a "Clientele Agency") Serves the many farming interests that, taken together, are the largest economic sector of the US (agriculture accounts for 1/5 of the total US domestic output) |
| Clientele Agencies: Location of their personnel | Most Clientele Agencies locate a big portion of their total personnel in field offices dealing directly with their clientele ("The Extension Service" of the "Department of Agriculture" is among the most familiar [with its many local "Extension Agents" who consult with farmers on farm productivity]) |
| Functional Representation | Is used/provided by many Clientele Agencies to foster the interests of their clientele= The agencies try to learn what their clients' interests and needs are and then operate almost as a lobby in Washington on their behalf |
| In addition to the Departments of Agriculture, the Interior, Labor, and Commerce, what are other Clientele Agencies? | Other Clientele Agencies include 5 of the newest cabinet departments: Housing and Urban Development (HUD), Transportation (DOT), Energy (DOE), Education (ED), Health and Human Services (HHS) |
| Agencies for the maintenance of the Union | Could be called "PUBLIC-ORDER Agencies" if it were not for the fact that the Constitution entrusts to the state governments many of the vital functions of public order (e.g. police)= However, some agencies vital to maintaining national bonds do exist in the national government (and they can be grouped into 3 categories) |
| What 3 categories can the agencies (that are vital to maintaining national bonds) in the national government be grouped into? | Agencies for managing the sources of government revenue= Agencies for controlling conduct defined as a threat to internal national security= Agencies for defending American security from external threats= (the departments of greatest power in these 3 areas are TREASURY, JUSTICE, DEFENSE, STATE, and HOMELAND SECURITY) |
| Internal Revenue Service (IRS) | Most important revenue agency= One of federal gov.'s largest bureaucracies= Over 100,000 employees are spread throughout 4 regions, 63 districts, 10 service centers, and many local offices |
| Department of Justice | As long as US is not in a state of insurrection, most of the task of maintaining the Union takes the form of LEGAL WORK, and the main responsibility for that lies with the "Department of Justice" (it is a luxury/rare in the world when national unity can be maintained by routines of civil law [as done in the US] rather than imposed by military force) |
| Criminal Division | Is the largest/most important agency in the "Justice Department"= Is responsible for enforcing all the federal criminal laws except a few specifically assigned to other divisions= Criminal litigation is actually done by the US attorneys |
| US Attorneys | (They do the Criminal Litigation) There is a presidentially appointed US attorney assigned to each federal judicial district, and he/she supervises the work of assistant US attorneys= The work/jurisdiction of the Antitrust and Civil Rights Divisions is descried by their official names |
| FBI | Despite its image in American folklore, the FBI is simply another bureau of the "Department of Justice"= Handles no litigation but rather serves as the information-gathering agency for all the other divisions |
| Department of Homeland Security | Created by Congress in 2002 to coordinate the nation's defense against the threat of terrorism= This new department is responsible for many tasks, including protecting commercial airlines from would-be hijackers |
| Agencies for External National Security | State Department and Defense Department= (There are few other agencies than State and Defense that also have external national-security functions) |
| State Department | (Is an agency for external national-security) Although its primary task is considered DIPLOMACY, diplomatic missions make up only 1 of its organizational dimensions= Is also composed of GEOGRAPHIC (or "REGIONAL") bureaus concerned with all problems with the defined regions of the world= Despite the State Department's importance in foreign affairs, less than 20% of all US gov. employees working abroad are directly under its authority |
| Functional bureaus | (Is 1 of the State Department's geographic/regional bureaus) Handle things like economic and business affairs, intelligence, and research |
| International organizations and bureaus of internal affairs | (Is 1 of the State Department's geographic/regional bureaus) Handle areas like security, finance and management, and legal issues |
| Department of Defense | (Is an agency for external national-security) Has under its control the largest # of career government professionals working abroad (in comparison to the State Department)= Created by legislation (made between 1947-49) that attempted to unify the 2 historic military departments (i.e. "War Department" and "Navy Department") and integrate into them a new department (i.e. "Air Force Department")= Ultimately, real unification did not occur= Rather, instead, the Defense Department added more pluralism to national security |
| Describe America's primary political problem with its military | Problem has not been the historic one of how to keep the military out of the politics of governing (a problem that plagued many European and Latin American countries)= Is rather a problem of the lower politics of the pork barrel (e.g. President Clinton's long list of proposed military-base closings [a major part of his budget-cutting drive for 1993]) |
| Describe President Clinton's long list of proposed military-base closings in relation to the American military problem | President Clinton's long list of proposed military base closings (a major part of his budget-cutting drive for 1993) caused a firestorm of opposition even in his own party (with some of the opposition coming from members of Congress who otherwise prominently favored significant reductions in the Pentagon budget) |
| Why did many oppose to President Clinton's long list of proposed military-base closings? | Because emphasis on jobs rather than strategy and policy means pork-barrel use of the military for political purposes= This is a classic way for a bureaucracy to defend itself politically in a democracy= It is the Distributive Tendency, where the bureaucracy ensures political support among elected officials by making sure to distribute things (e.g. military bases, contracts, etc.) to the states and districts that elected the legislators= (Thus, the best way to understand the military in American politics is to study it within the bureaucratic framework that is used to explain the domestic agencies) |
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