| A | B |
|---|
| Upper Palaeothic | Last stages of the stone-age culture, time of Cro-Magnon people |
| 1 million years ago | A species of Homo migrated throughout the world and modern humans evolved from this species |
| 100 000 years ago | Modern humans evolved in AFrica and then migrate to other parts of the world |
| Migrated due to... | Nomads following the herds of game animals - need them for food and protective clothing |
| Land bridge | Sea level low due to the glacial period formed these land bridges |
| Humans able to migrate into America and asia in.... | 30 000-35 000 yrs ago or 10 000 yrs ago |
| Humans isolated from humans in asia back then due to.. | Ice sheets fused, meaning land was covered in ice, and could only move when the sheets retreated |
| Cline | Gradual change in characteristics that occurs between one population and another |
| Examples of Cline | Hair form, body build, blood group |
| Darker skin near equator advantages | Gives protection against UV radiation, meaning a reduced incidence of skin cancer. Need to be exposed to the sun more though due to reducuction in Vitamin D synthesis. |
| Somatotype | Body build |
| Ectomorph | Short trunk, long limbs, little sub-cutaneous fat (Think Atim), increased surface area of ksin allows more heat loss through radiation and sweaing |
| Mesomorph | Long trunk, broad shoulders, short limbs, muscular as opposed to fatty |
| Endomorph | Long trunk, short limbs, Large amount of sub-cataneous fat (Eskimo) |
| Greatest surface area to volume ratio | Ectomorph |
| Variation not attributed to natural selection | Fingerprints etc |
| Hunter and Gathere characteristics | Diet mostly consisitng of plants, 3-5 hrs devoted to finding food, kinship ties and cooperation, interest in ritual and ceremony, possessions limited to needs |
| Pastoral characteristics | Rear and herd cattle, goats, sheep, horses or camels, groups can be larger due to domestication of animals, inequality in wealth etc, occurs in areas not suitable for cultivation of plants |
| Horticultural characteristics | Large communities due to reliable food supply, able to settle until soil is depleted by nutrients, can accumulate material possessions, food from cultivation of plants by hand tools |
| Agricultural characteristics | Large proportion of pop. not engaged in food production, Art and science developed, social inequality, women engaged in home chores, men in trade etc, written records kept |
| Industrial characteristics | Complex technological changes, Main economic base is production of good by machines/factory, value innovation and highly urbanised |
| Post-industrial characteristics | Earn living by applying not through physical labour, based on knowledge, rely on economic factors |
| Information of past comes from... | Artefacts such as tools, fireplaces and works of art. Also through food wastes. Skeletal analysis can give info on deficiencies, diseases, parasites and infection. Study of people in that lifestyle also gives great information. |
| Human society classification | Classified by basic features in which the society obtains the essential materials to sustain way of life |
| Why changed form hunter/gatherer lifestyle | Population density rising towards end of last ice age, meaning forced to adopt pastoral etc or else limit pop. growth |
| Hunter/gatherer lifestyle advantages | Better diet and nutrition due to a wide range of organic foods, more relaxed |
| Agriculture advantages and disadvantages | A = Larger population, increased education, reliable and storable food. D = Deep social and sexual divisions, poorer nutrition, disease, ruled by ruthless elite |
| Globalisation | Process of societies becoming increasingly independant |
| Why globalisation occurs | Accelerated rate of cultural diffusion and factors such as the media, electronic communications, unified global economy and international political, legal and military frameworks |
| Hot climate | Ectomorph body shape, broad, flat nose and dark skin would be most suitable |
| Cool climate | Endomorph body shape, high narrow nose to warm air more and lighter skin colour |
| Demography | Statistical study of a population |
| Birth rate | Number of people born in a year for every thousand people living in the middle of that year ((birth number/population number) X 1000) |
| Death/Mortality rate | Total number of deaths for a year per thousand people living in that yr ((death number/population)X1000) |
| Rate of natural increase | Growth rate of a population (Birth rate - Death rate) |
| Immigration rate | Rate of people arriving in australia to take up permanent residency |
| Emigration rate | Rate of people leaving Australia permanently |
| Carrying capacity | Maximum number of people that can be supported in an area |
| Population density | Number of peole per unit of land |
| Factors causing explosive growth | Scientific methods of food production, better nutrition, a better understanding of disease and better standards of hygiene |
| Problems associated with increasing world | Diminishing energy and material resources, global warming, pollution, soil degradation, reduction in biodiversity |
| Anthropometry | Study which compares body size and form on an objective scientific basis |
| Melanin | Skin pigment |
| Species | Group of organisms that, having many characteristics in common, are able to interbreed and produce fertile offspring |
| Classification important... | Easier to study groups and also helps show relationships |
| Epicanthic fold | Eye fold covering all or part of the upper eyelid. Is thought to be an adaption to protect eye from cold winds, frosts or highlevels of UV radiation |
| Fingerprint classifications | Arches (Ridges run from one side to the other without backward turn), loops (One or more ridges runs towards centre of pattern and then truns into opp direction), Whorls (Circular, spiral or oval ridge patterns) and composites (Complicated combination of all) |
| Agglutination | Red blood cells clump together |
| Last ice age | 11 000 yrs ago, so whem climate increased ice melted and migratory routes disappeared |
| Origins of Australina Aborigines | two theories. 1. Single migration of people to australia. Over time adaptation and random genetic drift varied characteristics/the characteristics evolved. 2. Two or more seperate migrations to Australia |
| Routes of migration | Sahul Shelf, north of Aus, stretches between Aru Island to New Guinea etc. Most likely points of entry to Australia would have been the shore of the shelf which was dry land during glacial periods. Wallacea, an archipelago densley packed with islands, also needed to be crossed. This is put down to island hopping in dug out canoes etc or being buffeted by a storm accidently sweeping them to an island. |
| Wallace's Line | Animals different on either side, divided. |
| Interpreting the evidence - Agreed points | Australia colonised 70 000 to 100 000 yrs ago. For humans to be established in SA by 60 000 yrs ago, original pop must have entered by at least 70 000 yrs ago. Great amount of variation of aboriginal people has occured through adaptation to local environments and random genetic drift. The early colonists moved out of Asia, through SE asia and into Aus. |
| Clines occur | Due to natural selection, mutation, random genetic drift and intermixing of populations |
| Skin colour dependance on... | Amount of blood in the small blood vessels of the Dermis and the amount of melanin (dark pigment) in the epidermis |
| Society | Group of people who share a common culture. One of the basic features is how obtain essential materials to sustain themselves. |
| Human lifestyles have changed due to... | Changes in climate, causing sea levels to rise and changes to distribution of plants and animals (Problem of rising population and dwindling resources). Adaptive mechanisms to survive - social benefits. Each society is succeeded by one more effective in providing for the group and individual needs. |
| Problems with Evolution | Huge inequalities between people, conflicts, degradation of the environment that may be irreversible |
| Problems with Change to farming | 1. Reliance on one or two crops (not so much variety either) 2. Risk of starvation if crop failed due to land clearance 3. Larger groups meant more spread of infectious disease (epidemics spread). Deep divisions in society also occured |
| Population pyramid/Age profile | Percentage of males and females in each age group for the toal population |
| Demographic transition | Population changes that occur as a country becomes industrialised |
| Death rate declines due to | Bewtter health care, hygiene and nutrition - Provisions of a clean water supply and sanitary methods of waste disposal. Antibiotics, vaccinations and general public health measures improve |
| Fall in birth rate | Availabilityof contraceptives, Desire for smaller families, children economic liabilites, education of women (further womans career) |
| At present levels of food consumption asustralia can support... | 100 million people, assuming that no food would be exported and no other economic considerations are taken into account. Otherwise 35 million people at present standards of living |
| Major consequence of industrial revolution | Energy hungry civilisation based mainly on use of coal, oil and gas (finite) |
| Costs of the industrial revolution | Pollution, rapid population growth, possible future shortages of some resources (including land), damage to natural habitats, and a reduction in biological diversity. |
| Sustainable developmet | One which conserves resources and does not cause long term degradation of the environment |
| Urbanisation | The move or transformation of rural areas into cities or large towns |
| Problems with urbanisation | Unemployment, homelessness, increased poverty, a widening gap between rich and poor, growing crime, deteriorating building, services and infrastructure, rising congestion, increasing pollution, lack of green spaces, inadequate water supply and sanitation, and an increased vulnerability to disasters |
| Huge urban agglomerations problems | Large areas of land lost to agriculture, unemployment on massive scale, lack of housing, difficutlies in providing water, electricity and sanitation etc |
| Population trend in future | Decline in population of cities in both industrialised and less developed countries, due to congestion and pollution driving of employers |
| Green revolution | In 1970s, world wide drive to introduce high yielding cereals and western agriculture techniques to Asia, part of africa and SOuth America, with new starins of crop, use of fertilisers, and improved methods of cultivation, harvesting and prodcessing of food. The high yield rice, wheat and maize is low in vitamins and minerals, and they replaced local fruits etc so people are deficient in Vit A, Zinz and iron. These deficiencies have cause a reduced ability of people to resist infection and do manual labour. |
| Intensive agriculture | Essential to feed worlds population as no more arable land available, with world populations expected to continue rising. Harvesting of cereal crops leaves soil exposed to ravages of wind and rain. |
| Advances made to help poverty and hunger/provide food | Hybrid rice plants suited to environemt (hot and arid), allow trebled yield with no extra cost or loss of nutritional value. Potatoes are the best package of nutrition in the world, being rich in minerals, vitamins, calories and protein. 4xbetter than rice, 5x better than wheat. Researchers must get rid of blight first (Ireland = potato famine due to blight). Perrenial crops being resistant to bacterial disease would not have to be replaced annually and would hold soil in place. |
| How much of world population is too poor to purchase surplus food | 1/3 |
| Global energy in 1985 | Burning 10 billion tonnes of coal, 40x more than 200 yrs before. Only trillion barrels oil left in world and expected to last only until 2040. |
| Rise in energy problems | Increase in global warming, pollution, risk of nuclear accidents, problems with storage of nuclear waste |
| Renewable energy sources | Solar, Wind, tidal, wave power (economic alternative and pollution free) |
| Biomass | Non-fossilised organic material and it can be used as a source of energy. Eg wood, wood residues, sewage, animal manure, household rubbish and garden waste |
| Water | Used for Cooling purposes and irrigation, industry. Increasing need leads to damming of rivers which results in irreversible changes to natual ecosystems. Future water shortages threaten global food supply, spread hunger and increase social conflict |
| Recycling | Treatement of waste materials so that it can be reused or new articles made from them |
| Advantages of recycling | Reserves finite resources, less ecological cost, less energy required, less pollution |
| Pollution | Contamination of an environment by harmful substances released by human activity |
| Pollutants | Pesticides, exhaust gases of engines, smoke from factories, seage, noise and radiation |
| Clean Air Act | Britain, Dec 1952, 4000 people died due to London Smog |
| Harm of pollutants | Harm living ecosystems by upsetting delicate balance of organisms, damage structures such as buildings or may directly affect human health |
| Air pollutants | Produced by aircraft, power stations and industry, but greatest is the car exhaust. Car exhausts contain CO, Oxides from N and S, Hydrocarbons from incomplete combustion of petroleum, Pb and Cd. Can lead to Respiratory inflammation, bronchitis, emphysema of the lung, lung cancer and asthma |
| Carbon monoxide | Combine with haemoglobin in blood 250 times more readily than O2 and reduces amount of O2 that can be carrie in th blood, which can be a critical starin o people with heart or lung disease. Symptoms are headache, nausea, blurred vision, poor muscle coordination and drowsiness and can cause traffic accidents |
| Ozone | Gas that occurs naturally in the part of the earths atmosphere called the stratosphere, about 15 to 60km above the ground. Shields us from suns harmful UV radiation, the rdiation that causes sunburn, skin cancer and cataracts of the eye. I fconc decrease more Uv radiation would reach the earth |
| CFCs | Chloroflourocarbons are compounds containing chlorine, flourine and carbon. Chlorine reacts with ozone in atmosphere to produce O2, reducing conc of ozone. Found in propellants in aerosal spray cans, refridgeration, air condition, fire extinguishers and foam packaging |
| Montreal Protocol | First global treaty for the protection of the environment, it aimed at reducing consumption of CFCs and other related chemicals by 50%. Will not see effect for a while due to gases in lower atmosphere tkaing 3-4 years to make their way into middle stratosphere. |
| Halon | Fire retardants, contain bromine which destroys ozone in upper atmosphere. Halon 1202 unsure where comes from |
| Methyl bromine | Chemical that kills a wide range of pests and used to fumigate soils before crops such as grapes and strawberries are planted. ONce gas escapes atmosphere it breaks down and releases bromine compound. Added to M.P. in 1995. |
| Greenhouse effect | Solar radiation warms earth surface, hot objects radiate heat so the earth then radiates heat back into atmosphere and the heat is partly absorbed. Traps heat in like a blanket. Keeps the planet at an a temp suitable for living things. Due to CO2, CH4 and water vapour, Nitrous oxides and CFCs. Increases in these due to deforestation and burning of fossil fuels means earth warms a little and increases global warming. |
| Global Warming and effect of more CO2 | Cause climatic changes, rising sea levels meaning land flooding, more photosynthesis of plants and weeds. |
| Minimising Greenhouse gases | Energy saving devices, renewable energy sources |
| Water pollutants | Oil, industrial wastes such as acids and heavy metals, fertilisers and organic wastes from sewage etc. Polluted water can cause diseases such as cholera (caused by swimming in contaminated water and eating infected sheelfish), typhoid and dysentry |
| Eutrophication | Nutrient enriched water leads to excessive algae growth which eventually decompose or die, leaving offensive odours. Bacteria involved in decomp. reduce conc of oxygen in water so water animals die. |
| Toxic metals include | Lead (commulative poison that effects nervous system and found from burning fuels with lead, lead pipes or lead in food from pesticides, cars), mercury (poisoning from treatement of animal skins for hats etc, affects brain and nervous system, minamata disease which included intellectual deterioration, loss of vision, numbness. Can come from gold mining or from soils after deforestation), cadmium and zinc. |
| Pesticides | Prevent widespread destruction of crops, are in air and soil, remain as residues in fruit and veg, in drinking water and in animal foods. They accumalte in human body and can cause cancer, liver diease or irreversible changes to nervous system. |
