| A | B |
|---|
| Critical action research | democratic, equitable, liberating, enhancing |
| Practical action research | Emphasizes more of a "how-to" approach and is less philosophical |
| Action research | Systematic inquiry conducted by educators to gather information about the ways in which their particular schools operate |
| Target population | The population from which the researcher would ideally like to select subjects |
| Accessible population | The population from which the researcher can realistically select subjects |
| Probability sampling | Permit the researcher to specify the chance that each member of a defined population will be selected for the sample |
| Basic steps for sampling | Identify the population, determine the required sample size, and select the sample |
| Simple random sampling | All individuals in the defined population have an equal chance of selection for the sample |
| Table of random numbers | Selects the sample with each member selected on a purely random basis |
| Stratified sampling | Guarantee desired representation of relevant subgroups within the sample |
| Proportional statified sampling | Subgroups are represented in the sample in the same proportion in whch they exist in the population |
| Cluster sampling | Intact groups are randomly selected for a sample |
| Cluster | Intact group with similar characteristics |
| Systematic sampling | Every Kth individual is selected from a list |
| Sampling error | Chance variation where the sample will differ significantly from the population on some important variable |
| Sampling bias | Systematic sampling error that is generally the fault of the researcher |
| Nonprobability sampling | The process of selecting a sample using a technique that does not permit the researcher to specifiy the chance that each member of a population has of being selected for the sample |
| Convenience sampling | Process of including whoever happens to be available at the time |
| Purposive sampling | Selecting a sample that is believed to be representative of a given population |
| Quota sampling | Selecting a sample based on required, exact numbers of individuals with varying characteristics |
| Qualitative sampling | Selecting a small number of individuals, chosen because they will be good key informants who contribute to the understanding |
| Intensity sampling | Selecting participants who permit study of different levels of the research topic |
| Homogeneous sampling | Selecting participants who are very similar in characteristics |
| Criterion sampling | Selecting all cases that meet some criteria |
| Snowball sampling | Selecting a few people, then using those participants to identify additional participants. |
| Random purposive sampling | Selecting more than needed for the study then a portion of those for the actual study |
| Data | Pieces of information |
| Construct | An abstraction that cannot be observed directly |
| Variable | Placeholder that can assume any one of a range of values |
| Instrument | A tool used to collect data |
| Measurement scale | System for organizing data |
| Nominal variable | Two or more named categories |
| Ordinal variable | Ranking order, intervals between rands are not equal |
| Interval variable | Values are ranked but also represent equal intervals, usually on a bell curve |
| Ratio variable | All the properties of the other variables and has a true zero point |
| Dependent variable | The variable hypothesized to depend on or to be caused by another variable |
| Independent variable | The hypothesized cause of the dependent variable |
| Test | Formal, systematic procedure for gathering information about peoples' cognitive and affective characteristics |
| Cognitive characteristic | Mental characteristic related to intellect |
| Affective characteristic | Mental characteristic related to emotion |
| Sandardized test | Instrument administered, scored, and interpreted in the same way no matter where or when it is used |
| Assessment | Broad term that encompasses the entire process of collecting, synthesizing, and interpreting information |
| Measurement | Process of quantifying or wscoring performance on an assessment; occurs after data are collected |
| Performance assessment | Type of assessment that emphasizes a student process; i.e. lab demonstration or oral speech |
| Raw score | The number of items a person answered correctly on an assessment |
| Norm-referenced scoring | A student's performance on an assessment is compared to the performance of others |
| Criterion-referenced scoring | An individual's performance on an assessment is compared to a pre-determined, external standard |
| Self-referenced scoring approaches | Measuring how an individual student's performance on a single assessment changes over time |
| Mental Measurements Yearbooks (MMYs) | Provides information and reviews of published tests |
| Cognitive test | Measures intellectual processes |
| Achievement test | Measures an individual's current proficiency in given areas of knowledge |
| Diagnostic test | Yields multiple scores to facilitate identification of a student's weak and strong areas within the subject area |
| Aptitude test | Used to predict how well an individual is likely to perform in a future situation |
| Affective test | Designed to measure mental characteristics related to emotion |
| Values | Deeply held beliefs |
| Attitudes | Indicate favorable/unfavorable feelings |
| Attitude scale | Measures what an individual believes about self, other, activities, institutions, or situations |
| Likert scale | Indicates the degree to which an individual responds to a statement |
| Semantic differential scale | An individual selects a position on a continuum |
| Rating scale | Respondent ranks a set of statements |
| Thurstone scale | Participants select from a list of statements that represent different points of view |
| Guttman scale | Respondents agree or disagree with a number of statements |
| Response set | The tendency of an individual to respond in a particular way to a variety of instruments |
| Bias | Distortion of research data that renders the data suspect or invalid |
| Projective tests | Rorschach inkblot test |
| Content validity | The degree to which a test measures an intended content area |
| Item validity | The test items are relevant to the measurement of the intended content area |
| Sampling validity | How well the test samples the total content area being tested |
| Face falidity | The degree to which a test appears to measure what it claims to measure |
| Criterion-related validity | Relating the performance on a test to performance on a second test or other measure |
| Concurrent validity | The degree to which scores on one test are related to scores on a similar test administered in the same time frame or to some other valid measure available at the same time |
| Predictive validity | The degree to which a test can predict how well an individual will do in a future situation |
| Predictor | Variable upon which the prediction is based |
| Criterion | Predicted variable |
| Construct validity | Reflects the degree to which a test measures an intended hypothetical construct |
| Consequential validity | The extent to which an instrument creates harmful effects for the user |
| Reliability | The degree to which a test consistently measures whatever it is measuring |
| Test-retest reliability | Scores obtained at one time are close to the same when the test is readministered some other time |
| Equivalent-forms reliability | Two similar forms of a test produce similar scores |
| Split-half reliability | Test is divided into two halves and correlated |
| Kuder -Richardson and Cronbach's alpha | Estimate internal consistence reliability by determining how all items on a test relate to other test items and the test as a whole |
| Interjudge/inter-rater reliability | The consistency of two or more independent scorers |
| Intrajudge/intra-rater reliability | The consistency of one individual's scoring over time |
| Standard error of measurement | An estimate of how often one can expect errors of a given size in an individual's test score |
| Survey research | Collecting data to test hypotheses about people's opinions on some topic |
| Survey | Instrument to collect data describing characteristics of a specific population |
| Cross-sectional survey | Data are collected from selected individuals at a single point in time |
| Longitudinal survey | Data are collected at two or more times for studying the dynamics of a topic over time |
| Trend survey | Analyze changes in the attitudes within a particular population over time |
| Cohort survey | One population , multiple samples taken, different points in time |
| Panel survey | Same individuals are studied over time |
| Follow-up survey | Addresses development or change in a previously studied population |
| Questionnaire | Written collection of survey questions |
| Interview | Oral, in-person question-and-answer session |
| Structured item | Respondent selectes from a provided response option |
| Unstructured item | Respondent has complete freedom of response |
| Correlational research | Collecting data to determine whether, and to what degree, a relationship exists between two or more quantifiable variables |
| Common variance | Indicates the extent to which variables vary in a systematic way |
| Statistical significance | Refers to the probability that the results would have occurred simply due to chance |
| Relationship study | A researcher attempts to gain insight into variables that are related to a complex variable; helps researchers identify related variables suitable for subsequent examination |
| Pearson r | a measure of correlation that is appropriate when both variables to be correlated are expressed as continuous data; preferred method |
| Spearman rho | Rank data are found in studies with small groups of participants, and are arranged in rank order |
| Attenuation | Reduction in correlation coefficients that tends to occur if the measures have low reliability |
| Prediction study | An attempt to determine which variables are most highly related to the criterion variable |
| Shrinkage | The tendency for the prediction to be less accurate for a group other than the one on which it was originally developed |
| Multiple regression equation | A prediction equation including two or more variables that individually predict a criterion, resulting in a more accurate prediction |
| Intervening variable | Cannot be directly observed or controlled; Can influence the link between predictor and criterion variables |
