| A | B |
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| Scientific Method | The standard procedure for acquiring and verifying empirical(concrete, scientific) knowledge. |
| Literature Review | A thorough search through previously published studies relevant to a particular topic. |
| Hypothesis | A theoretical statement explaining the relationship between 2 or more phenomena. |
| Variables | One of two or more phenomena that a researcher believes are related and hopes to prove through research |
| Paradigm Shift | Describes a change in basic assumptions of a particular scientific discipline. |
| Ethnography | A naturalistic method based on studying people in their own environment in order to understand the meanings they attribute to their activities. |
| Participant Observation | A methodology associated with ethnography where the researcher both observes and becomes a member in a social setting. |
| Access | The process by which an ethnographer gains entry to a field setting. |
| Fieldnotes | Detailed notes taken by an ethnographer describing her activities and interactions--becomes an ethnographic analysis. |
| Reflexivity | How the identity and activities of the researcher influence what is going on in the field setting. |
| Grounded Theory | An inductive method of generating theory from data by creating categories in which to place data and then looking for relationships between categories. |
| Replicability | Research that can be repeated, and thus verified, by other researchers later. |
| Representativeness | The degree to which a particular studied group is similar to, or represents any part of the larger society. |
| Bias | An opinion held by the researcher that might affect the research or analysis. |
| Interviews | Face-to-face information-seeking conversation, sometimes defined as a conversation with a purpose. |
| Respondents | A researcher solicits information from them |
| Target Population | The entire group about which the reporter generalizes |
| Sample | The part of the population that will actually be studied |
| Informed Consent | The researcher makes sure that respondents are freely participating and understanding the nature of research |
| Close-ended Question | Imposes a limit on possible responses (asked of a respondent) |
| Open-ended Question | Allows the answer to take whatever form the respondent chooses |
| Leading Questions | Predispose a respondent to answer in a certain way |
| Double-Barreled Questions | Attempt to get at multiple issues at once, and so tend to receive incomplete answers |
| Survey | A method based on questionnaires that are administrated to a sample of respondents selected from a target population |
| Likert Scale | A way of organizing categories on a survey question so that the respondent can choose an answer along a continuum |
| Negative Questions | Ask respondents what they don't think instead of what they do |
| Representative Sample | Taken so that findings from members of the same sample group can be generalized to the whole population |
| Probability Sampling | Any sampling scheme where the probability of selecting any given unit is known |
| Simple Random Sample | A particular type of probability sample, where every member of the population has an equal chance at being selected. |
| Weighting | Techniques for manipulating the sampling procedure so that the sample more closely resembles the larger population |
| Reliability | The consistency of a question or measurement tool, the degree to which the same questions will produce similar answers |
| Confidentiality | The assurance of privacy |
| Validity | The accuracy of a question or measurement tool |
| Pilot Study | A small study carried out to test the feasibility of a larger one |
| Experimental Group | Part of a test group that receives the experimental treatment |
| Control | The process of regulating all factors except the independent variable |
| Control Group | Allowed to continue without intervention, so that they can be compared with the experimental group |
| Existing Sources | Any previously collected data |
| Comparative and Historical Methods | Use existing sources to study relationships between elements of society in various regions and time periods |
| Content Analysis | A method in which researchers identify and study specific variables--such as words--in a text, image, or media message |
| Value-Free Sociology | An ideal whereby researchers identify facts without allowing their own personal beliefs or biases to interfere |
| Basic Research | The search for knowledge without any agenda or desire to use that knowledge to effect change |
| Applied Research | Designed to allow the researcher to use what is learned to create some sort of change |
| Objectivity | Impartiality, the ability to allow the facts speak for themselves |
| Reactivity | The tendency of people and events to react the process of being studied |
| Hawthorne Effect | A specific example of reactivity, where the desired effect is the result of not the independent variable, but of the research itself |
| Code of Ethics | Ethical guidelines for researchers to consult as they design a project |
| Institutional Review Board | A group of scholars within a university who meet regularly to review and approve the research of their colleagues and make recommendations for how to protect human subjects |
| Culture | The entire way of life of a group of people that acts as a lens through which one views the world and is passed from one generation to the next |
| Ethnocentrism | The principle of using one's own culture as a means or standard by which to evaluate another group or individual, leading tot he view that cultures other than one's own are abnormal |
| Cultural Relativism | The principle of understanding other cultures on their own terms, rather than judging or evaluating to one's culture |
| Material Culture | The objects associated with a cultural group, such as tools, machines, utensils, buildings and artwork: any physical object which we give social meaning |
| Symbolic Culture | The ideas associated with a culture group, including ways of thinking (beliefs, values, and assumptions) and ways of behaving |
| Sign | A symbol that stands for, or conveys an idea |
| Gestures | The ways in which people communicate with their bodies without words. Actions that have symbolic meaning |
| Language | A system of communication--sounds, gestures, etc. The basis of symbolic culture and the main way we communicate |
| Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis | An idea that language structures thought, and the ways of looking at the world are embedded in language |
| Values | Ideas about what is desirable or contemptible and right or wrong in a particular group |
| Norm | A rule or guideline regarding what kinds of behavior are acceptable or appropriate within a culture |
| Law | A common type of formally defined norm--provides an explicit statement about what is okay and not okay in a given society |
| Folkway | A loosely enforced norm, involving common customs, practices, etc. that ensure smooth social interaction and acceptance |
| More | Closely related to the core values of a cultural group; often involves severe repercussions for violators |
| Taboo | A norm engrained so deeply that even thinking about violating it evokes strong feelings of disgust, horror, or revulsion |
| Sanction | Positive or negative reactions to the ways that people follow or disobey norms. Has rewards and punishments |
| Social Control | The formal and informal mechanisms used to increase conformity to values and norms--cohesion |
| Multiculturalism | Values diverse backgrounds and encourages the retention of cultural differences within society |
| Dominant Culture | The values, norms, and practices of the group within society that is most powerful (wealth, prestige, etc) |
| Hagemony | Describes the cultural aspects of social control--the ideas of the dominant social group are accepted by all of society |
| Subculture | A group within society that is differentiated by its distinctive values, norms, and lifestyles |
| Counter Culture | Rebels the norm |
| Cultural Wars | Clashes within mainstream society over the values and norms that should be upheld |
| Ideal Culture | The norms, values, and patterns of behavior that members of a society believe should be observed |
| Real Culture | The norms, values, and patterns of behavior that actually exist within a society |
| Popular Culture | Forms of cultural expression usually associated with the masses, consumer goods, and commercial products |
| High Culture | Cultural expression usually associated with the elite class |
| Taste Publics | Groups who share similar artistic, literature, media, recreational, and intellectual interests |
| Polysemy | Having many possible meanings or interpretations |
| Interpretive Community | Dedicated the consumption and interpretation of a particular cultural product and create a collective, social meaning for the product |
| Art World | The group comprised of everyone involved in the creation, distribution, and consumption of any cultural product |
| Technology | Material artifacts and the knowledge and techniques required to use them |
| Technological Determination | The notion that develops in material culture provide the primary driving forces behind social organization and change |
| Cultural Diffusion | The dissemination of beliefs and practices from one group to another |
| Cultural Leveling | The process by which cultures that were once odd become similar |
| Cultural Imperialism | The imposition of one culture's beliefs, practices, and artifacts on another culture through mass media and consumer products |
| Nature Vs. Nurture Debate | The ongoing discussion of the roles of genetics and socialization in determining the individual behaviors and traits |
| Socialization | The process of learning and adapting the values, beliefs, and norms of our social group, by which we become functioning members of society |
| Self | The individual's conscious, reflexive experience of a personal identity separate and distinct from others |
| Id | Consists of basic inborn drives that are the source of instinctive psychic energy |
| Ego | The realistic aspect of the mind that balances the forces of the id and the superego |
| Superego | Has two components: the conscience and the ego-ideal, and represents the internalized demands of society |
| Psycho-Sexual Stages of Development | 4 distinct stages of the development of the self between birth and adulthood |
| Looking-Glass Self | The notion that the self develops through our perception of others' evaluations and appraisals of us |
| Generalized Other | The perceptives and expectations of a network of others that a child learns and then takes into account when shaping his or her own behavior |
| Dual Nature of the Self | The belief that we experience the self as both subject and object, the "I" and the "me" |
| Thomas Theorem | Classic formulation of the way individuals define situations whereby, "if people define situations as the real, they are real in their consequences |
| Definition of the Situation | An agreement with others about "what is going on" in a given circumstance. Allows us to coordinate our actions with others and realize goals |
| Expressions of Behavior | Small actions such as an eye roll or head nod, which serve as an interactional tool to help project our definition of the situation to others |
| Expressions Given | Intentional and usually verbal, such as utterances |
| Expressions Given Off | Observable expressions that can be either intended or unintended and are usually non-verbal |
| Impression Management | The effort to control the impressions we make on others so that they form a desired view of us and the situation; the use of self presentation and performance tactics |
| Dramaturgy | An approach in which social life is analyzed in terms of its similarities to theatrical performance |
| Front | The dramaturgical perspective, the setting or scene of performances that helps establish the definition of the situation |
| Personal Front | The expressive equipment we consciously or unconsciously use as we present ourselves to others, including appearance and manner |
| Region | The context or setting in which the performance takes place |
| Backstage | Places in which we rehearse and prepare our performances |
| Frontstage | The region in which we deliver our public performances |
| Cooling the Mark Out | Behaviors that help others to save face or avoid embarrassment |
| Autoethnography | Ethnographic description that focuses on the feelings and reactions of the ethnographer |
| Agents of Socialization | Social groups, institutions, and individuals that provide structured situations in which socialization takes place |
| Group | A collection of people who share some attribute, identify with one another, and interact with each other |
| Crowd | A temporary gathering of people in a public place; members might interact but do not identify with each other and will not remain in contact |
| Aggregate | A collection of people who share a physical location but do not have lasting social relations |
| Primary Groups | The people who are most important to our sense of self |
| Secondary Groups | Members' relationships are typically characterized by face-to-face interaction, high levels of cooperation and intense feelings of belonging |
| Social Network | The web of direct and indirect ties connecting an individual to other people who may also affect her |
| Social Ties | Connections between individuals |
| Anomie | "Normlessness," Term used to describe the aienation and loss of purpose that result from weaker social bonds and an increased pace of change |
| Electronic or Virtual Communities | Social group whose interactions are meditated through information technologies, particularly the internet |
| Group Dynamics | The patterns of interaction between groups and individuals |
| Dyad | A two-person social group |
| Triad | A three-person social group |
| In-Group | A group that one identifies with and feels loyally toward |
| Out-Group | Any group an individual feels opposition, rivalry, or hostility toward |
| Reference Group | A group that provides standard of comparison against which we evaluate ourselves |
| Group Cohesion | The sense of solidarity or loyalty that individuals feel toward a group to which they belong |
| Groupthink | In very cohesive groups, the tendency to enforce a high degree of conformity among members, creating a demand for a unanimous agreement |
| Social Influence (Peer Pressure) | The influence of one's fellow group members on individual attitudes and behaviors |
| Prescriptions | Behaviors approved of by a particular social group |
| Proscriptions | Behaviors a particular social group wants its members to avoid |
| Compliance | The mildest type of conformity, undertaken to gain rewards or avoid punishments |
| Identification | Stronger than compliance and weaker than internalization, caused by a desire to establish or maintain a relationship with a person or group |
| Internalization | The strongest type of conformity, occurring when an individual adopts the beliefs or actions of a group and makes them her own |
