| A | B |
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| Soprano | (Women's or children's high voices) Notated on Treble Staff= Stems always point UP |
| Alto | (Women's or children's low voices) Notated on Treble Staff= Stems always point DOWN |
| Tenor | (Men's high voices) Notated on Bass Staff= Stems always point UP |
| Bass | (Men's low voices) Notated on Bass Staff= Stems always point DOWN |
| Outer Voices | Refers to the Soprano and Bass voices |
| Inner Voices | Refers to the Alto and Tenor voices |
| Voice Leading: Doubling | Because a Triad consists of only 3 tones, one of its tones must appear twice (i.e. must be DOUBLED)= Rules for doubling are formulated on the basis of an ideal vertical sonority |
| Doubling Rules | The leading tone (because of its active tendency toward Scale Degree 1) should NEVER be doubled when it is part of V or VII or their inversions |
| Doubling Rules: Root-Potion Chords | Tendency is to double the more stable parts of the triad |
| Doubling Rules: Major/Minor Triads | The root is most often doubled |
| Doubling Rules: Final Tonic Chord | The root of a final tonic chord is almost always doubled |
| Doubling Rules: Seventh Chords | Seventh Chords (because they already contain 4 tones) contain NO doublings if they are complete chords= SOMETIMES, the ROOT is doubled and the 5th OMITTED= The chord 7th forms a dissonance, so it must NEVER be doubled |
| How is the best vertical sonority achieved? | When all the tones of a triad are present in the chord |
| 5th of a Major/Minor Root-Position Triad | The 5th of a major or minor root-position triad may be OMITTED without confusing the identity of the chord= Because of the strength of the second overtone, the ear assumes a 5th above the bass unless there is some other interval present that contradicts the 5th |
| What happens when the 5th of a root-position triad is omitted? | The root is tripled and the chord 3rd not doubled= Sometimes, you would have an incomplete chord if it enables a step-wise connection in many of the voices (preferable the upper voices) |
| Can you omit the 3rd of the triad for Voice Leading? | Because of the empty sound and the lack of major or minor quality, the 3rd of the triad is NEVER omitted except for special effects |
| Triads in Inversion | Are usually complete |
| Root-Position Seventh Chords | Frequently omit the chord 5th and double the root |
| Inversions of Seventh Chords | Are usually complete (with exceptions occurring even less often than with inversions of triads) |
| Spacing | Adjacent upper voices should not be more than an octave apart= Is perfectly OK for the tenor to be separated from the bass by as much as TWO OCTAVES (the resulting high tenor register gives a particularly intense choral sound)= However, to have the alto and tenor in a low register and separated from the Soprano often produces muddiness |
| Close Position | Occurs when the 3 upper voices are as close together as possible (no additional chord tone can be inserted between adjacent voices) |
| Open Position | In Open Position, the upper voices are separated so that a chord tone could be inserted between either alto and soprano, or tenor and alto, or both pairs of voices= Tends to give a full but clear and well-balanced sound |
| Open and Close Position | Both can be used within a single phrase= Changing from Close to Open Position (or the reverse) is often necessary for good voice leading (the change can also give a welcome variety of sound) |
| Keyboard Style | A way of realizing/playing figured bass at the piano with the right hand playing the 3 upper parts and the left hand playing the bass only= This would mean that the distance between soprano and tenor could not exceed an octave (a comfortable stretch for most hands)= Except for its notation, then, keyboard style is similar to Close Position= In this instrumental style, the limitations of vocal range need not be followed strictly (the tenor, in particular, tends to move higher than would be practical for voices) |
| Stem Direction | If majority of notes in a chord are above middle line, then stem points down= If majority of notes in a chord are below the middle line, then stem points up= If single note is above middle line, stem points down (and visa versa) |
| Bass Tone | Determines whether a chord is in root position or inversion |
| Soprano Tone | (Not as important as the Bass Tone) Exerts a strong influence on the sound of a chord= REASON: The Soprano is usually the most prominent of the 4 voices |
| Soprano Tone: Effect | The effect that the Soprano Tone creates depends on several factors in combination: The interval from the bass, the stability/activity of the scale degree, and the context in which it appears |
| Soprano Tone: Scale Degree 1 Over Tonic Harmony | Tends to give a stable (sometimes a static) impression= It forms an octave with the bass and is the least active degree of the scale= THUS, this position of the soprano will be most useful at POINTS OF ARTICULATION |
| Soprano Tone: Placing the 3rd of a triad in the Soprano | A particularly beautiful sonority often results from placing the 3rd of a triad (especially a major triad) in the soprano= This disposition mirrors the overtone series, in which the 3rd (5th partial) appears above the octave (2nd and 4th partials) and the 5th (3rd partial) |
| Unusual Spacing | Like most rules for doubling, the rule of spacing refers to a norm and is thus not absolutely binding= In a Chorale, exceptional spacing is of brief duration (most often just a chord or two)= (In even simpler texture of written exercises, such spacings are best avoided) |
| Voice Leading | Unlike Chord Construction, Voice Leading involves MOTION (the motion of each of the four voices considered individually and the sense of progression created by their combination) |
| Melodic Motion: How might a line move? | In addition to SUSTAINING or REPEATING a tone, a line may move by STEP ("Conjunct" Motion) or by SKIP or LEAP ("Disjunct Motion") |
| Conjunct Motion | Movement by step |
| Disjunct Motion | Movement by skip or leap |
| Melodic Motion: Which voice carries the Melodic Line? | As the highest (and thus most exposed) voice, the SOPRANO carries the main melodic line |
| Soprano Voice: Conjunct VS Disjunct Motion | Most good soprano lines contain a GREATER amount of CONJUNCT MOTION (However, the inclusion of one or two leaps will help greatly in adding interest and variety to the line)= However, too much disjunct motion may keep the line from holding together and may make it difficult to sing |
| Soprano Voice: Repeated Tones | Excessive repetition of a single tone can result in a static melodic line= However, an occasional repetition can create a good effect (especially if the other voices move) |
| Melodic Motion: Which voice regulates the succession of chords? | Because the lowest tone is the crucial member of the chord, the BASS voice has the special function of regulating the succession of chords |
| Melodic Motion: Which voices/lines are interdependent? | The Bass and Soprano lines are interdependent |
| Melodic Motion: What must the Bass voice/line do? | Must make explicit the harmonic meaning of the soprano |
| Bass Voice: Conjunct VS Disjunct Motion | Bass lines are often quite DISJUNCT (particularly at the ends of phrases), but STEPWISE MOTION can give a welcome melodic quality to the line |
| Melodic Motion: Inner Voices | Sometimes have a melodic interest of their own, particularly in places where the soprano does not move very much= The main function of the Inner Voices, however, is to COMPLETE the tones of the chord framed by the bass and soprano |
| Melodic Motion: The position of the outer voices | The position of the outer voices may limit the melodic possiblities of the inner voices, so that extensive repetition of one or two tones may be unavoidable= Such repetition is not harmful to the total effect if the bass and soprano are good |
| Melodic Motion: Inner Voices VS Soprano and Bass | In general, the inner voices will have a less distinct profile than the soprano and bass will |
| Inner Voices: Conjunct VS Disjunct Motion | Smooth voice-leading connections make likely a majority/preponderance of CONJUNCT motion= However, skips are also possible (if they occur for a valid reason) |
| Melodic Motion: Disjunct Motion | Gives variety and tension to a melodic line (but can be disruptive if used carelessly)= The effect a leap produces depends largely on its size and on whether it is consonant or dissonant (in context, other factors might be important, for instance whether or not there is a chord change) |
| Consonant Leaps | Upward or Downward Leaps |
| Melodic Motion: Consonant Leaps | (Consonant Leaps) Occur fairly frequently even in the simplest vocal textures= The smaller the leap, the less it tends to disrupt the continuity of the line |
| Leap of a Major/Minor 3rd | (Consonant Leaps) Interferes least with melodic continuity (especially where it is preceded or followed by Stepwise Motion) |
| Leap of a 6th or Octave | (Consonant Leaps) Generates considerable tension and should usually be followed by a change of direction (preferably by STEP) |
| Leaps larger than an Octave | (Consonant Leaps) Are NOT permitted |
| Large Leaps | (Consonant Leaps) Must be used sparingly in a short harmony exercise= Although their occasional use creates interest and variety, too many will create a disconnected/meaningless line |
| Leap of a Melodic Perfect 5th and Perfect 4th | (Consonant Leaps) (As a melodic interval, the Perfect 4th is ALWAYS Consonant) The Melodic Perfect 5th and Perfect 4th are more moderate in their effect than the Octave or 6th are but much MORE noticeable than the leap of a 3rd= It is best to often change direction after such a leap (but stepwise motion in the same direction is a good possibility) |
| What types of leaps are usually avoided? Exception? | (Consonant Leaps) 2 or more leaps in a row and in the same direction are usually avoided EXCEPT when a 3rd combines with another 3rd or with a 4th to arpeggiate a chord |
| Leaps: Arpeggiation | (Consonant Leaps) The sparing use of arpeggiation (within a limited range) is a good source of variety in vocal music, but excessive use will destroy the vocal character |
| Dissonant Leaps | Represent a more advanced stage of complexity than consonant ones do= Thus, Dissonant leaps are EXCLUDED ENTIRELY from the simplest vocal styles |
| Dissonant Leaps in Four-Voice Chordal Settings | In a four-voice chordal setting, certain types of chords (particularly the Dominant 7th) and certain harmonic progressions make Dissonant Leaps logical and attractive= The Augmented 2nd (an interval traditionally excluded from four-part chorale settings and figured-bass realizations) should NOT be used |
| Simultaneous Motion | When the motion of one voice relates to the motion of another= Can relate by "Parallel Motion", "Similar Motion", "Oblique Motion", "Contrary Motion" |
| Parallel Motion | (Type of Simultaneous Motion) Both voices move in the same direction and maintain the same numerical interval |
| Similar Motion | (Type of Simultaneous Motion) Both voices move in the same direction but the interval between them changes |
| Oblique Motion | (Type of Simultaneous Motion) One voice remains stationary while the other moves |
| Contrary Motion | (Type of Simultaneous Motion) BOth voices move in opposite directions |
| Contrary Motion: Effect | Contrary Motion creates the greatest contrast between the 2 voices and helps to give each an individual contour= Each voice is independent of the other in a way that adds to the listener's interest |
| Oblique Motion: Effect | Is second up to Contrary Motion (i.e. 2nd best) to creating the greatest contrast between the 2 voices (and thus helping to give each an individual contour)= Each voice is independent of the other in a way that adds to the listener's interest (but not as much as does Contrary Motion does) |
| Similar Motion: Effect | Is third up to Contrary Motion (i.e. 3rd best) to creating the greatest contrast between the 2 voices (and thus helping to give each an individual contour)= Each voice is independent of the other in a way that adds to the listener's interest (but not as much as does Contrary Motion does) |
| Parallel Motion | Is fourth up to Contrary Motion (i.e. 4th best/lest of all the types of motion) to creating the greatest contrast between the 2 voices (and thus helping to give each an individual contour)= Each voice is independent of the other in a way that adds to the listener's interest (but not as much as does Contrary Motion does) |
| What type of motion is used in voice leading? | Because there are only 2 directions (UP and DOWN), all 4 voices cannot be going in contrary motion to each other= Thus, the other types of motion are not only permissible but necessary and desirable |
| Besides Contrary Motion, what other types of motion are desirable for 4-Part Voice Leading? | Parallel Motion in 3rds, 6ths, and 10ths (can be among the most useful types of voice leading) |
| When/what types of motion are bad? Why? | Certain types of PARALLEL MOTION interfere either with the individuality of parts or with the forward momentum of the voice leading |
| What types of Parallel Motion are NOT ALLOWED? | Parallel Unisons, Parallel Octaves, Parallel Perfect 5ths |
| Parallel Unisons | (Are NOT allowed) Here, individuality does not exist because the one part merely duplicates the pitch, register, and motion of the other= THEREFORE: If unisons occur in the same pair of voices while the unison itself is changing tones (e.g. C-G), it is NOT ok= However, if the unison stays on the same tone (i.e. does not change from C), it is OK!!! |
| Parallel Octaves | (Are NOT allowed) Here, one part duplicates the pitch and motion of the other in a different register= This provides some contrast but not enough to give the feeling of 2 individual voices= THEREFORE: If the octave between 2 voices occur in the same pair of voices after the tones have changed to the next chord (e.g. tenor & alto singing octave C's and then octave D's), it is NOT ok= However, if the octave stays on the same tones (i.e. does not change from the octave C's), it is OK!!! |
| Parallel Perfect 5ths | (Are NOT allowed) The Perfect 5th is unique in that it is the ONLY interval that can define a TRIADIC ROOT= This quality gives the interval a very strong stability and resistance to forward momentum= Composers from the 15th through 19th-Centuries have excluded Parallel Perfect 5ths (as well as unisons and octaves)= THEREFORE: If the parallel 5ths occur between the same 2 voices before and after the chord change (e.g. C-G to D-A), then this is NOT ok= However, if the parallel 5ths do not change tones (e.g. the C-G is simply repeated), then this is OK!!! |
| Motion from a Perfect 5th to a Diminished 5th | Is acceptable |
| Motion from a Diminished 5th to a Perfect 5th | Is normally AVOIDED since the dissonant interval does NOT resolve |
| What does the prohibition of Parallel Unisons, 5ths, and Octaves refer to? | Refers only to motion within the SAME pair of voices |
| Describe: The exact repetition of a unison, octave, or Perfect 5th | Does NOT create motion and is thus NOT a case of forbidden parallels (i.e. is OK!!!) |
| Instrumental Pieces: Doubling | In instrumental pieces (in which the number of parts will change from time to time), doublings at the octave may occur, usually to obtain variety of sound or for emphasis= Such doublings are NOT Parallel Octaves |
| Doublings at the Unison | Occur frequently in chamber and orchestral music= However, where the number of voices must remain the same (such as in a chorale or harmony exercise) such doublings should be strictly avoided |
| Octave Doublings of one or more voices: Possible Result | Sometimes, Octave Doublings of one or more voices may produce consecutive 5ths as a by-product= This will happen if 2 voices of the basic voice leading move in parallel 4ths (Parallel 4ths between upper voices are NOT INCORRECT) |
| Chord Fillers | (Added tones) Especially in keyboard music, a full texture is sometimes produced by adding doublings of chordal tones= These added tones sometimes produce distinct voices, but sometimes they don't |
| Consecutive 5ths as the product of "Chord Fillers" | Consecutive 5ths that are the product of fillers are NOT FORBIDDEN parallels= Such 5ths are fairly frequent in keyboard writing |
| Consecutive 5ths and Octaves by Contrary Motion | Are best avoided in most cases because the succession of 2 perfect intervals in the same pair of voices tends to cause unwanted accents (the same applies to motion between a Unison and an Octave) |
| Octaves in the Outer Voices | In pieces usually with a free texture, octaves in the outer voices may occur at the END of a phrase for purposes of emphasis |
| 5ths in the Outer Voices | Are less frequent than octaves in the outer voices but sometimes occur between an outer and an inner voice |
| Hidden/Direct 5ths or Octaves | Are 5ths or octaves that are approached by similar motion= The term "HIDDEN" reflects the old theoretical idea that hidden 5ths or octaves conceal actual parallels that would occur if the intervals were filled in |
| Hidden/Direct 5ths or Octaves: Two-Part Writing | Hidden 5ths and Octaves are forbidden entirely in two-part writing= REASON: The fewer the voices, the stronger and more problematic the effect |
| Hidden/Direct 5ths or Octaves: When the effect is NOT prominent/bad | The more complex the texture, the milder (and thus less problematic) the effect= The greater the concentration of dissonance, the weaker the effect |
| Hidden/Direct 5ths or Octaves: Where are they most/least noticeable? | Hidden octaves and 5ths are most noticeable in outer voices and are also most noticeable where there is no common tone between the 2 chords= Least noticeable in inner voices and where they occur within a single chord |
| Hidden/Direct 5ths or Octaves: Skips in both voices | Skips in both voices emphasize Hidden 5ths and Octaves |
| Hidden/Direct 5ths or Octaves: Stepwise Motion in the upper voice | Stepwise motion in the upper voice minimizes their effect |
| Hidden/Direct 5ths or Octaves: Bach (in his chorales) | Bach (in his chorales) avoids hidden octaves in the outer voices EXCEPT where the soprano moves by step |
| Voice Crossing | If 2 voices exchange position (e.g. if the alto moves below the tenor) the voices are said to cross |
| Voice Crossing: When is it the least problematic? | Is the least problematic when it involves only inner voices, and it is best when of very brief duration |
| Voice Crossing: Voices that can be negatively effected | A soprano or bass line can become obscured if crossed by an inner voice= THUS, avoid such crossings! |
| Overlapping | When 2 voices maintain their normal relative position, but the lower voice moves above the former position of the upper voice (or the upper voice moves below the former position of the lower)= Such voice leadings may be confusing (especially if a melodic stepwise connection can be made between the 2 voices)= Overlaps (although not strictly forbidden) should be avoided wherever possible in four-part vocal style= They occur more appropriately in Keyboard Style (e.g. they are unavoidable if the soprano leaps any great distance) |
