| A | B |
|---|
| part-word repetitions | sound or syllable repetition ex. S-S-Saturday or Sa-Sa-Saturday |
| whole-word repetitions | repetition of an entire word more than once (ex. I-I-I am or Could-could-could not) |
| phrase repetitions | repetition of more than one word (ex. I am-I am) |
| silent prolongations | sounds produced for a duration longer than average w/out voice |
| interjections | extraneous elements introduced into the speech sequence |
| pauses | silent intervals in the speech sequence at inappropriate junctures or of unusually long duration |
| broken words | silent intervals within words, also known as intralexical pauses (ex. Be [pause} fore you) |
| Incomplete sentences | these are grammatically incomplete productions |
| revisions | changes in wording that do not change the overall meaning of an utterance |
| incidence | rate of occurrence in a specified group of people |
| prevalence | is determined by counting the number of individuals who currently have it |
| what is the prevalence in the US population? | 1% |
| In the majority stuttering begins at what ages? | 3 and 6 |
| Is stuttering more common in males or females? | males, 3:1 ratio |
| concordance | the occurrence of the same clinical condition in both members of a twin pair |
| Is the rate of stuttering higher for identical or fraternal twins? | identical |
| T or F, the concordance rate for fraternal twins is higher than for ordinary siblings | true |
| What populations have a somewhat higher prevalence? | developmentally disabled & neurologically impaired |
| Where does a lower prevalence of stuttering occur? | deaf and hard of hearing people |
| Do Native Americans stutter? | yes (Johnson thought they didn't) |
| What abnormal motor behaviors may be associated with stuttering? | excessive muscular effort, various facial grimaces, various hand & foot movements, rapid eye blinking, lip pursing |
| What are associated breathing abnormalities in stutterers? | speak on inhalation, hold breath before talking, talk w/out ample air, rapid/jerking breathing, tensed breathing |
| What are negative emotions associated with stuttering? | anxiety, apprehension, fear of speaking situations, hostility towards certain speakers, frustration, and humiliation |
| Where does avoidance occur & cause? | certain situations, words, sounds. Causes cirumlocution & use of nonspecific words |
| loci of stuttering | refers to the locations in a speech sequence where stutterings are typically observed |
| Is stuttering is more likely to occur with consonants or vowels | consonants |
| Stuttering is more likely to occur.. | in consonants, on the first sound or syllable of a word, on the first word in a phrase, sentence, or grammatical clause, longer words, less frequently used words, content words |
| Whose stuttering tends to occur on function words? | preschool children |
| T or F an early characteristic of stuttering is an increase in whole word repetitions | true |
| adaptation effect | systematic reduction in the frequency of stuttering when a short printed passage is repeatedly read aloud |
| T or F Adaptation is a permanent phenomenon | false, only temporary |
| consistency effect | the occurence of stuttering on the same word or loci when a passage is read aloud repeatedly |
| What is the opposite of the adaptation effect? | consistency effect |
| How much of stuttering in an individual is consistent? | about 65% |
| adjacenc y effect | occurrence of new stuttering on words that surround previously stuttered words |
| audience size effect | the frequency of stuttering increases with an increase in audience size |
| The audience size effect is characterized by... | decrease in stuttering w/no audience, increase w/more listeners, decrease when hearing is visibly masked |
| What are examples of conditioning and stimulus control over stuttering? | adaptation, consistency, adjacency, audience size |
| T or F the personality of people who stutter and their parents provides strong clues to the etiology of stuttering | false |
| genetic hypothesis | speculation that genes play a role in stuttering |
| A potential genetic basis of stuttering is suggested by what observations? | higher familial incidence, gender ratio, higher concordane in identical twins |
| What disputes the genetic hypothesis? | no gene or chromosomal abnormality has been identified, currently not universally accepted |
| laryngeal dysfunction hypothesis | stuttering is due to aberrant laryngeal functions (defective neuromotor control) |
| What evidence supports the laryngeal dysfunction hypothesis? | slightly delayed VOT, increased laryngeal tension, aberrant muscle behavior, excessive laryngeal muscle activity |
| Hypothesis on the brain and speech and language mechanisms | brain isn't working properly or that there may be an auditory feedback problem |
| Evidence suggesting potential brain dysfunction includes.. | may not have a dominant hemisphere, abnormal brain waves, reduced cerebral blood flow, potential involvement of the auditory portion of the brain |
| Stuttering as an Operant Behavior | stuttering is seen as a behavior that can be changes by changing its consequences |
| What are the learning, conditioning, and related hypotheses? | stuttering as an operant behavior, speech disruption due to classically conditioned negative emotion, avoidance behavior, approach-avoidance, reaction of tension/fragmentation, demands of exceeding capacities |
| diagnosogenic theory | states that when parents punish a child's normal nonfluencies, the child develops anticipatory, apprehensive, and hypertonic avoidance reactions that are stutterings |
| anticipatory struggle hypothesis | origin of stuttering is parental disproval of normal nonfluency (wrong!!) |
| demands and capacities model | states that continued and severe communicative pressure can result in chronic communicative failure |
| Stutterins as a form of pyschoneurosis | states that stuttering is due to an underlying psychopathology & that stutterings are symptoms of deep-seated psychological conflicts |
| What should be included in a detailed case history? | onset, familial prevalence, earliest beh., course of stuttering, prior svcs, education/work, health, language/speech dev. |
| How would you assess the freq & types ? | record speech sample or oral reading sample |
| How would you assess variability? | rate diff speaking situations, obtain verbal reports, tape sample from home, compare to naturalistic settings |
| How would you assess associated motor behaviors? | take note of behaviors during assessment, describe those behaviors |
| How would you assess avoidance behaviors? | have client tell you, take note of words/sounds avoided during interview, ask client to make a list, have client make a hierarchy, have family members describe |
| How would you assess speech rate? | count # of words/syllables spoken per minute in at least 3 2-minute samples |
| How would you assess articulatory rate? | count the # of syllables produced while discounting all stutterings and pauses that exceed 2 seconds |
| How would you assess negative emotional reactions? | have client describe, administer the modified S-Scale, ask family members |
| What are the diagnostic criterias for stuttering? | dysfluencies exceeds 5%, freq of part-word repetitions, sound prolongations, and broken words, excessive duration of dysfluencies |
| List the psychological methods of treatment | Freudian psychoanalysis, non-Freudian psychotherapy, and counseling |
| Psychological Method may include | discussion of problems, feelings, emotions, resolution of psychological conflicts, reeductation about the stuttering problem |
| What is the goal of the Fluent-Stuttering Method? | more fluent stuttering not fluent spech |
| What are the steps to the Fluent-Stuttering Method? | 1)teaching stuttering identification, 2)desensitizing the client, 3)modifying stuttering, 4)stabilizing the treatment gains, 5)counseling the client |
| What is a limitation to the Fluent-Stuttering Method? | it rarely establishes normal fluency |
| Teaching stuttering identification | client is taught to identify stuttering and associated problems in both clinical and everyday situations |
| Desensitizing the client | encourage the client to be open & honest about it and to voluntarily stutter |
| Modifying stuttering | teach client to produce more fluent, easier, and less abnormal stuttering |
| What are the stuttering modifications? | cancellations, pull-outs, preparatory sets |
| cancellations | pausing after a stuttered word and saying the word again with easy and more relaxed stuttering |
| pull-outs | change the stuttering in mid-course by slowing down & using soft articulatory contacts instead of blocking |
| preparatory sets | change the manner of stuttering so that the client produces less abnormal stuttering |
| Stabilizing the treatment gains | encourage the client to use the techniques of stuttering modification in all speaking situations |
| Counseling the client | encourage the client to discuss the emotions/attitudes he associated with stuttering to gain a more realistic and accepting view of his difficulties |
| What is the goal of the Fluency Shaping Method? | to establish normal fluency |
| What is the main treatment task in the Fluency Shaping Method? | teach the various skills of fluency |
| What are the various skills of fluency? | appropriate management of airflow to produce and sustain fluent speech, slower rate of speech, gentle onset of phonation |
| The treatment targets for Fluency Shaping include? | airflow management, easy onset, reduced rate, shape normal prosodic features, implement maintenance strategies |
| What are the specific treatment procedures of Fluency Shaping? | Teach airflow management first followed by gentle onset, then rate reduction, then the achievement of stutter-free speech, and finally shape normal prosodic features |
| What is a limitation to the fluency shaping method? | it generates low, deliberate, and somewhat unnatural-sounding |
| Describe the fluency reinforcment method. | the clinician arranges a pleasant, relaxed setting, evokes speech w/the help of books, toys, positively reinforce the child for fluent utterance w/verbal praise, freq models a slow relaxed speaking rate, reshapes normal prosody if a slower rate is a target |
| T or F Clinical experience suggests that fluency reinforcement alone may be effective with young children | true |
| Masking and Delayed Auditory Feedback Techniques | alters auditory feedback of speech |
| In using the DAF, the clinician... | uses a DAF machine that allows for variable delays, determines a client-specific duration of delay that assures stutter-free speech, has the client practice stutter-free speech for varying lengths of time to eliminate stutterings, and fades the delay in gradual steps to reshape normal prosody while maintaining fluency |
| What is the main advantage of DAF? | the capacity to induce a slower rate of speech |
| In using the masking noise of DAF the clinician... | determines a minimum level of masking, has the client practice stutter-free speech for variable lengths of time, and fades the masking noise to reshape normal prosody while maintaining fluency |
| Direct Stuttering Reduction Method | seeks to reduce stuttering directly w/out teaching specific fluency skills or modifying |
| What is used in direct stuttering reduction? | time-outs or response cost |
| Time-out | involves a behavioral contingency of pausing after each dysfluency and then talking |
| What are the specific procedures in time-out? | say stop or give signal when dysfluency occurs, avoid contact w/client for 5 seconds, reestablish eye contact after time-out duration and let the client continue his speech, maintain eye contact, smiling and other social reinforcers |
| response cost | involves a behavioral contingency of taking a positive reinforcer away from the client for every instance of stuttering |
| What are the specific procedures in response cost? | reinforce fluency, take a token away at earliest sign of stuttering, progress from words to phrases, etc |
| What is a limitation of direct stuttering reduction? | limited research on response costs |
| What is the advantage of direct stuttering reduction? | time out & response cost can help establish more natural sounding fluency |
| cluttering | is a disorder of fluency characterized by rapid but disordered articulation |
| What are the characteristics of cluttering? | impaired fluency, rapid repetition, disordered artic, jerky rhythm, monotonous tone, spoonerisms, lack of anxiety |
| spoonerisms | unintentional interchanges of sounds in a sentence |
| What is the cause of cluttering? | the cause is unknown but genetic transmission and subtle brain damage have been among suggested factors |
| Treatment of cluttering | reduce speech rate and increase client's awareness |
| What is the major problem in treating clutterers? | maintenance of fluent, well articulated speech |
| The position that stuttering indicates a social role conflict was taken by | Sheehan |
| Stuttering in preschool children is more likely on | function words |
| Bloodsteing believes that stuttering may be caused by | any belief that speech is a difficult task resulting in tension and speech fragmentation |
| Cancellations, pull-outs, and preparatory sets are taught in which approach | fluent-stuttering approach |
| Airflow management, easy onset, and reduced rate are taught in which approach | fluency-shaping approach |
| What involves a rapid rate of speech, indistinct articulation, and spoonerisms? | cluttering |
