| A | B |
|---|
| Essentialism - curriculum focus | essential skills (three Rs) and essential subjects - Back to basics |
| Essentialism - knowledge | essential skills and academic subjects; mastery of concepts and principles of subject matter |
| Essentialism - Related Curriculum trends | Back to basics; cultural literacy; excellence in education |
| Essentialism - role of education | Teacher is authority in his or her subject field; explicit teaching of traditional values |
| Essentialism - Aim of education | To promote the intellectual growth of the individual; to educate the competent person |
| Historical | Significance of context. Curricula are created by people within temporal political, social, economic, and cultural contexts |
| Social | through curricula, schools influence the cultures of the people that they schools serve. Likewise, the cultures affect and shape the schools and their curricula |
| Psychological | concerned with the question of how people learn - how psychology can contribute to the design and delivery of curriculum |
| Philosophical | our philosophy of education influences and to a large extent determines our educational decisions, choices, and alternatives. It is the beginning point in curriculum decision making |
| Perennialism - Philosophical base | Think Fred Perrin - Realism |
| Perennialism - Aim of education | to educate the rational person; to cultivate the intellect |
| Perennialism - knowledge | focus on past and permanent studies; mastery of facts and timeless knowledge |
| Perennialism - role of education | teacher helps students think rationally; based on Socratic method, oral exposition; explicit teaching of traditional values |
| Perennialism - curriculum focus | classical subjects; literay analysis; constant curriculum |
| Perennialism - related curriculum trends | Great books; Paideia proposal; returning to the liberal arts |
| Essentialism - philosophical base | idealism, realism |
| Progressivism role of education | teacher is guide for problem solving and scientific inquiry |
| Progressivism - knowledge | knowledge leads to growth and development; a living-learning process; focus on active and relevant learning |
| Progressivism - aim of education | to promote democratic, social living |
| Progressivism - related curriculum trends | relevant curriculum; humanistic education; radical school reform |
| Progressivism - curriculum focus | Based on students's interests; involves the application of human problems and affairs; interdisciplinary subject matter; activities and projects |
| Progressivism - philosophical base | pragmatism |
| Reconstructionism - philosophical base | pragmatism and existentialism |
| Reconstructionism - aim of education | to improve and reconstruct society; education for change and social reform |
| Reconstructionism - role of education | teacher serves as an agent of change and reform; acts as a project director and research leader; helps students become aware of problems confronting humankind |
| Reconstructionism - knowledge | skills and subjects needed to identify and ameliorate problems of society; learning is active and concerned with contemporary and future society |
| Reconstructionism - curriculum focus | emphasis on social sciences and social research methods; examination of social, economic, and political problems; focus on preset and future trends as well as on national and international issues |
| Reconstructionism - related curriculum trends | international education; reconceptualism; equality of educational opportunity |
| Perennialism | For Perennialists, the aim of education is to ensure that students acquire understandings about the great ideas of Western civilization. These ideas have the potential for solving problems in any era. The focus is to teach ideas that are everlasting, to seek enduring truths which are constant, not changing, as the natural and human worlds at their most essential level, do not change. Teaching these unchanging principles is critical. Humans are rational beings, and their minds need to be developed. Thus, cultivation of the intellect is the highest priority in a worthwhile education. The demanding curriculum focuses on attaining cultural literacy, stressing students' growth in enduring disciplines. The loftiest accomplishments of humankind are emphasized– the great works of literature and art, the laws or principles of science |
| Essentialism | Essentialists believe that there is a common core of knowledge that needs to be transmitted to students in a systematic, disciplined way. The emphasis in this conservative perspective is on intellectual and moral standards that schools should teach. The core of the curriculum is essential knowledge and skills and academic rigor. Although this educational philosophy is similar in some ways to Perennialism, Essentialists accept the idea that this core curriculum may change. Schooling should be practical, preparing students to become valuable members of society. It should focus on facts-the objective reality out there--and "the basics," training students to read, write, speak, and compute clearly and logically. Schools should not try to set or influence policies. Students should be taught hard work, respect for authority, and discipline. Teachers are to help students keep their non-productive instincts in check, such as aggression or mindlessness. This approach was in reaction to progressivist approaches prevalent in the |
| Progressivism | Progressivists believe that education should focus on the whole child, rather than on the content or the teacher. This educational philosophy stresses that students should test ideas by active experimentation. Learning is rooted in the questions of learners that arise through experiencing the world. It is active, not passive. The learner is a problem solver and thinker who makes meaning through his or her individual experience in the physical and cultural context. Effective teachers provide experiences so that students can learn by doing. Curriculum content is derived from student interests and questions. The scientific method is used by progressivist educators so that students can study matter and events systematically and first hand. The emphasis is on process-how one comes to know. The Progressive education philosophy was established in America from the mid 1920s through the mid 1950s. John Dewey was its foremost proponent. One of his tenets was that the school should improve the way of life of our citizens through experiencing freedom and democracy in schools. Shared decision making, planning of teachers with students, student-selected topics are all aspects. Books are tools, rather than authority. |
| Reconstructionism | Social reconstructionism is a philosophy that emphasizes the addressing of social questions and a quest to create a better society and worldwide democracy. Reconstructionist educators focus on a curriculum that highlights social reform as the aim of education. Theodore Brameld (1904-1987) was the founder of social reconstructionism, in reaction against the realities of World War II. He recognized the potential for either human annihilation through technology and human cruelty or the capacity to create a beneficent society using technology and human compassion. George Counts (1889-1974) recognized that education was the means of preparing people for creating this new social order. |
| Idealism | the aim of education is to discover and develop each individual's abilities and full moral excellence in order to better serve society. The curricular emphasis is subject matter of mind: literature, history, philosophy, and religion. Teaching methods focus on handling ideas through lecture, discussion, and Socratic dialogue (a method of teaching that uses questioning to help students discover and clarify knowledge). Introspection, intuition, insight, and whole-part logic are used to bring to consciousness the forms or concepts which are latent in the mind. Character is developed through imitating examples and heroes. |
| Realism | Realists believe that reality exists independent of the human mind. The ultimate reality is the world of physical objects. The focus is on the body/objects. Truth is objective-what can be observed. Aristotle, a student of Plato who broke with his mentor's idealist philosophy, is called the father of both Realism and the scientific method. In this metaphysical view, the aim is to understand objective reality through "the diligent and unsparing scrutiny of all observable data." Aristotle believed that to understand an object, its ultimate form had to be understood, which does not change. For example, a rose exists whether or not a person is aware of it. A rose can exist in the mind without being physically present, but ultimately, the rose shares properties with all other roses and flowers (its form), although one rose may be red and another peach colored. Aristotle also was the first to teach logic as a formal discipline in order to be able to reason about physical events and aspects. The exercise of rational thought is viewed as the ultimate purpose for humankind. The Realist curriculum emphasizes the subject matter of the physical world, particularly science and mathematics. The teacher organizes and presents content systematically within a discipline, demonstrating use of criteria in making decisions. Teaching methods focus on mastery of facts and basic skills through demonstration and recitation. Students must also demonstrate the ability to think critically and scientifically, using observation and experimentation. Curriculum should be scientifically approached, standardized, and distinct-discipline based. Character is developed through training in the rules of conduct. |
| Pragmatism | For pragmatists, only those things that are experienced or observed are real. In this late 19th century American philosophy, the focus is on the reality of experience. Unlike the Realists and Rationalists, Pragmatists believe that reality is constantly changing and that we learn best through applying our experiences and thoughts to problems, as they arise. The universe is dynamic and evolving, a "becoming" view of the world. There is no absolute and unchanging truth, but rather, truth is what works. Pragmatism is derived from the teaching of Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914), who believed that thought must produce action, rather than linger in the mind and lead to indecisiveness. John Dewey (1859-1952) applied pragmatist philosophy in his progressive approaches. He believed that learners must adapt to each other and to their environment. Schools should emphasize the subject matter of social experience. All learning is dependent on the context of place, time, and circumstance. Different cultural and ethnic groups learn to work cooperatively and contribute to a democratic society. The ultimate purpose is the creation of a new social order. Character development is based on making group decisions in light of consequences. For Pragmatists, teaching methods focus on hands-on problem solving, experimenting, and projects, often having students work in groups. Curriculum should bring the disciplines together to focus on solving problems in an interdisciplinary way. Rather than passing down organized bodies of knowledge to new learners, Pragmatists believe that learners should apply their knowledge to real situations through experimental inquiry. This prepares students for citizenship, daily living, and future careers. |
| Existentialism | The nature of reality for Existentialists is subjective, and lies within the individual. The physical world has no inherent meaning outside of human existence. Individual choice and individual standards rather than external standards are central. Existence comes before any definition of what we are. We define ourselves in relationship to that existence by the choices we make. We should not accept anyone else's predetermined philosophical system; rather, we must take responsibility for deciding who we are. The focus is on freedom, the development of authentic individuals, as we make meaning of our lives. There are several different orientations within the existentialist philosophy. Soren Kierkegaard (1813-1855), a Danish minister and philosopher, is considered to be the founder of existentialism. His was a Christian orientation. Another group of existentialists, largely European, believes that we must recognize the finiteness of our lives on this small and fragile planet, rather than believing in salvation through God. Our existence is not guaranteed in an after life, so there is tension about life and the certainty of death, of hope or despair. Unlike the more austere European approaches where the universe is seen as meaningless when faced with the certainty of the end of existence, American existentialists have focused more on human potential and the quest for personal meaning. Values clarification is an outgrowth of this movement. Following the bleak period of World War II, the French philosopher, Jean Paul Sartre, suggested that for youth, the existential moment arises when young persons realize for the first time that choice is theirs, that they are responsible for themselves. Their question becomes "Who am I and what should I do? |
