| A | B |
|---|
| Pollination | When pollen is deposited on stigma |
| Fertilization | When pollen grain reached the ovary and fuses with the egg |
| What happens after fertilization? | The seed develops food storage regions for the embryo called fruit |
| Fruit | Food storage regions for the embryo |
| When can it remain dormant until...? | Until temperature and moisture cause the seed to start early growth called germination |
| Agriculture | The systematic cultivation of plants by humans |
| Petals | Colorful leaf like structure around the stem; attract insects and other pollinators of the flower |
| Sepals | Green leaf like structure around the flower stem beneath the petals; enclose the bud before it opens and protect the flower while it is developing |
| Stamens | Male part of the flower where at their tip is the anther that rests on the filament that contains pollen |
| Carpel | Female part of the flower, which contains sticky stigma, where pollen grains land and travel down the style to the ovary and ovules |
| Imperfect Flower | A flower missing any of these 4 major parts |
| Seed and Fruit Production | 2 sperm fertilize the female, one the egg (1n), the other the central cell (2n) |
| What becomes the protective seed coat? | The walls of the ovule become the protective seed coat and the central cell becomes the endosperm or food for the embryo and the ovary wall the fruit |
| Double Fertilization | Two fertilization events take place at the same time |
| Fruits and seeds in plant reproduction | Fruits and seeds are modified for dispersal; shape of seed can determine the type of dispersal (wind, water, animal, etc) |
| Vegetative Reproduction | When plants form new plants from portions of their own roots, stems. or leaves |
| Spores | Non-seed vascular plants (ferns) release spores |
| Coevolution | Where plants and animals have evolved together to create a unique relationship; only one species can pollinate that plant; |
| Mutualism | Where plant and animal both benefit; ex: hummingbird/ Bees and nectar; animals and tasty fruits; acacia tree and ants |
| Commensalism | Where the plant benefits and animal is neither helped nor harmed; ex: Burrs stuck in an animal's coat |
| What are animals? | Animals are eukaryotic, multicellular, heterotrophic, evolve ways of moving to feed, reproduce, and protect themselves; specialized cells that form tissues and organs like nerves and muscles; cells do not have cell walls |
| What have animals likely evolved from? | Animal-like protists during the Cambrian period |
| Essential functions: | Feeding; obtain food from the environment; Respiration: exchange O2 and CO2; Circulation: move materials around body; Excretion: get rid of wastes; Respond: process information with nerves; Move: all animals are motile at some point; Reproduce: most sexually, some asexually |
| Coelom | Fluid filled cavity that supports internal organs |
| Acoelomates | Have no internal cavity. Ex: flatworms |
| Pseudocoelomates | A body cavity develps between endoderm and mesoderm. ex: roundworms |
| Coelmates | Internal organs suspended in a body cavity surrounded by mesoderm. ex: humans |
| What do animals mainly reproduce? | Mainly reproduce sexually: external fertilization (in water) and internal fertilization (on land) |
| Steps of development | Most animals develop from a single fertilized egg (zygote), Fertilization - speerm meets egg, etiher within or outside the body, the unicellular zygote divides by mitosis=cleavage, a hollow ball of cells forms a blastula (fluid filled ball of cells.), Gastrulation (folding inward) occurs to form 2 cell layers: ectoderm and endoderm. The Mesoderm forms which will form the muscles, circulator system, excretory sstem and respiratory system |
| asymmetry | irregular in shape. ex: sponge only! |
| Radial symmetry | Can be divided through along any plane into halves from the mouth. ex: hydra |
| Bilateral symmetry | Can be devided lenthwise into 2 mirror images. ex: humans |
| Cephalization | Concentration of sense organs at the front (top) of the body |
| Bisymmetrical animals | Anterior; posterior; dorsal; ventral; transverse |
| Anterior | The head end, where sensory organs are located |
| Posterior | The tail end (anus) |
| Dorsal | Back surface where the spine is located |
| Ventral | The belly side |
| Transverse | Cross section strait through |
| Exoskeletons | Hard, waxy covering on the exterior of the body. Prevent water loss, protect soft tissues |
| Endoskeletons | Internal skeeton for support made of Calcium Carbonate (starfish), cartilage (sharks) or bone (humans). Protects internal organs and an internal brace for muscles to pull against |
| Invertebrates | An animal without a backbone; usually has an exoskeleton. Echinoderms have endoskeletons. |
| Vertebrates | An animals with a backbone; bilaterallly symmetry; exoskeleton |
| Invertebrates-characteristics | Make up 95% of all animals, have no backbone, or vertebral column, mostly have exoskeletons; ruled the earth during the early Paleozoic Era/Cambien Period (540-500mya) Called the "Age of Invertebrates"; open circulatory systems (with a one chambered "heart") Cannot process oxygen very well, restricts their size and survival on land |
| Vertebrates-characteristics | A vertebrate is an animal with a backbone; Classification: Kingdom-Animala/ Phylum-Chordata/ Subphylum-Vertebrata; characteristics: have an endoskeleton. The backbone gives support to the body and protection to the spinal cord. Cephalization=means the sensory organs and well develped brain located in a skull. Also possess a Closed circulatory system w/ a multichambered heart |
| Ectotherms | Regulated by environment. Example: fish, frogs, snakes |
| Endotherms | Regulated by their own body. Ex: mammals, humans |
| The Human Vertebrate Skeleton | There are 206 bones in the human body. Muscles aid in skeletal movement. Ther are 100 joints in the human body and 639 different muscles. Muscles and bones attach by tendons and ligaments. endons: muscle to Bone and Ligaments: Bone to Bone |
| Bones | Make blood, store minerals, protect internal organs, and allow movement |
| Axial skeleton | Includes the skll, vertebral column, and rib cage. Protects internal organs! |
| Appendicular skeleton | Includes the arm, leg bones, pelvis and shoulder. Allows for locomotion! |
| Ball and socket | Allows for a wide range of motion (shoulder, hip) |
| Hinge | Back and forth motion (elbow, knee) |
| Pivot | Bones rotate around one another (base of skull) |
| Saddle/Gliding | Bones slide over one another (wrist, ankle) |
| Fish | Are first vertebbrates, dominated in devonian period; gills; external; 2 chamered heart; ecothermic; have a swim bladder for bouyancy and little to no parent involvement; ex:seahorse |
| Amphibians | Dominated permian period; repiration through lungs through skin; are external; have 3 chambered heart; ecothermic; good metamorphisis; ex: toads, frogs, anura |
| Reptiles | Dominated in mesozoic era; breathe through lungs; have internal reproduction, 3 chambered heart (crocs and alligators 4 chambers); ectothermic; little to no parental involvement(crocs yes,; snakes no); ex: crocodilia |
| Avians | Dominated after dinosaur era; breathe through lungs; have internal respiration; 4 chambered heart with highly oxygen efficient; endothermic; have high level parent involvement; ex: Robin |
| Mammals | dominated after dinosaurs; breathe through lungs; are internal; have a 4 chambered heart; are endothermic; nurse young, lots of parental envolvement, lots of teeth, few offspring; ex: cat |
| Placental | 95% young fully develops in uterus before birth. ex:humans |
| Marsupials | Short period of development inside the moth followed by a second pair of deleopment inside pouch. Ex: kangaroos and opossums |
| Monotremes | (3 species)- la eggs. ex: platypus and 2 echidnas |
| What do plants need to survive? | Sunlight to make Glucose, Water and minerals, and Carbon dioxide to make Glucose! |
| Why do we need plants? | Source of sugar (energy) for the base of the energy pyramid!; major source of oxygen |
| Plant general characteristics | Carry out photosynthesis (autotrophs); produce cellulose in their cell walls; non-motile (don't move around); reproduce sexually and asexually; have specialized tissues and organs |
| How have plants evolved to a life on land? | Plants likely evolved from plant-like protists green algae from a watery environment; likely evolved around 400-500 million years ago |
| Bryophytes | Ex: mosses, liverworts, hornworts, use osmosis for means of transport; reproduce by spores; do not have fruit of flowers |
| Pteridophyta | Ex: ferns; use vascular as means of transport; reproduce by spores; do not have any flowers or fruit |
| Gymnosperms | Ex: conifers and pinetrees; use vascular as a means of transport; reproduce by seeds; do not have any flowers and fruit |
| Angiosperms | Flowering plants; use vascular as means of transport; reproduce by seeds; have fruit |
| Cotyledon | Tiny seed leaves that store or absorb food for developing embryo; class monocotyledonae and class dicotyledonae |
| Class Monocotyledonae | Monocots (1) |
| Class Dicotyledonae | Dicots (2) |
| Annuals | Those who die in one season |
| Biannuals | Those who die in two years |
| Herenials | Those who live many years |
| Roots | Roots anchor plants into the ground, absorb water and minerals from the soil, protect the plant from bad bacteria/fungi, and transport these materials to the stem; contain xylem and phloem in the center of the root |
| Root pressure | Dew is an example of root (pressure forcing excess water out of the plant); the root cap burrows through the soil and the cells are replenished by the apical meristem |
| Meristem | Areas of rapidly dividing cells |
| Stems | Stems can be either woody or herbacious |
| Transpiration | As water evaporates, the energy released pulls water up the stem; vascular tissues are arranged differently in stems that leaves |
| Monocots vs. Dicots =stems | M-scattered in stem; D-circular pattern in stem |
| Xylem | Transports water and minerals |
| Phloem | Transports sugars and hormones |
| Sink | Portion of a plant that stores sugar |
| Leaves | Permit exchange of CO2, O2, and H2O with the environment and site of photosynthesis (sun) |
| What are leaves protected by? | Protected by a waxy cuticle. Petiole-vascular tissues extending from stem to leaf (appear as veins); Mesophyll-contain chlorophyll |
| Guard cells and stomata | regulate water loss through the underside of the leaf (Transpiration) |
| Monocots vs. Dicots =leaves | M-parallel veins; D-net veined |
| Capillary Pressure | Water uses cohesion (unlike particles stick together) and adhesion (like particles stick together) to push its way up xylem in plants; limiting factor in height of trees. |
| Photoperiodism | affects the timing of flower production; duration of light and dark periods in the day; short-day plants, long-day plants, day-neutral plants |
| Tropism | A plant's response to external stimulus that comes from a particular direction; involve growth, so they are not reversible |
| Phototropism/Gravitropism/Thigmotropism | Light/Gravity/Touch |
| Nastic movement | Do not involve growth, so are reversible; ex: folding of a Venus Flytrap |
| Hormones | Cause a physiological change either in growth or development |
| Auxins (IAA) | stem elongation |
| Gibberllins | Increase rate of seed germination and allows the stem to grow taller |
| Cytokinnis | Stimulate proteins for cell division and extends the life of a plant |
| Ethylee | Ripens fruit and emergence of seeds from the soil |
| Abscisic Acid | Helps leaves prevent water loss by hardening certain leaf cells |
| Meristematic tissue | Only tissue that produces new cells by mitosis, found on edges |
| Parenchyma | Used or storage, surrounded by vascular tissue |
| Vascular tissue | Like arteries and veins; ex: xylem and phloem |
| Xylem | Transports materials up from the roots to leaves and supports the plants as "wood" after the cell dies |
| Phloem | Transports materials down from the leaves to roots and stem |
| Vascular Cambium | Makes more vascular tissue |
| Cork cambium | Outer bark of trees |
| Behavior | Anything an animal does in response to its environment; the way an organism reacts to changes in its internal conditions or external environment |
| Behaviors-characteristics | Behaviors can have an adaptive value and are shaped by natural selection; offspring will inherit the genetic basis for the successful behavior; those without the behavior will die or fail to reproduce |
| Stimulus | Any kind of signal that carries information and can be detected; light, sound odors, heat. REcieved by senses: sight, smell, touch, sound, taste |
| Response | A specific reaction to a stimulus; reacts include nervouse system, sense organs, and muscles |
| Innate behavior | Inherited from birth; fully functional the first time, even without previous experience; "inborn behavior" |
| Reflexes | Contains no conscious control; newborn babies and their grasp reflex. Getting hit on the knee causes it to "kick". Someone snaps in your eyes and you blink. You touch/pick up a hot object and releaase it |
| Fight-or-flight | Mobilizes the body for greater activity; ex: increased heart activity, adrenaline secreted (tingly feeling), respiration increases (heavy breathing), skin gets cold and clammy |
| Instinct | A complex pattern of innate behaviors; therefore, take a longer time. SEveral parts and take weeks to complete. Begins when an animal recognizes a stimulus and continues until all parts of the behavior have been performed |
| Migration | The instinctive, seasonal movement of animals to take advantage of more favorable environmental climates |
| Circadian rhythms | A 24-hour cycle of behavior, plants also follow this pattern |
| Suckling | In mammals, it is the drawing of milk into the mouth from the nipple or teat of a mammary gland. In human beings suckling is also referred to as nursing, or breast-feeding. The method by which newborn mammals are nourished |
| Hibernation | Allows animals to conserve energy during the winter when food is short. During hibernation, animals drastically lower their metabolism so as to use energy reserves stored as body fat at a slower rate. They exhibit the following: lower body temperature, slower breathing, and lower metabolic rate |
| Estivation | Rare state of dormancy similar to hibernation, but during th months of the summer. They exhibit the following: against heat to avoid the potentially harmful effects of the season. Conserve water and food, avoid predators and avoid competition with other species |
| Taxis | An innate behavioral response by an organism to a directional stimulus |
| Taxis vs. Tropism | A taxis differs from a tropism (turning response, often growth towards or away from a stimulus) in that the organism can move easily and demonstrates guided movement towards or away form the stimulus. A very primitive form of stimulus and response. Ex: worms move away from the sunlight and towards the dark |
| Learned Behavior | Behavior changes through practice and/or experience. They are acquired behaviors, develop over time. These behaviors were seen as advantageous to prevent an organism from responding to repeat stimuli and/or getting killed/harmed |
| Habituation | An animal decreases or stops its response to a harmless repetitive signal; because it allows the animal more time to be efficient and not waste energy worrying about a non-harmful stimuli. |
| Classical conditioning | Forming a mental connection between a stimulus and a reward/punishment. Ex: Pavolv's dog |
| Trial and Error/Operant Conditioning | An animal learns to behave in a certain way through repeated practice. ex: a rat learning its way in a maze |
| Insight learning | Learning in which an animal uses previous experience to respond to a new situation, common in primates. Humans excel at this. Ex: solving math problems |
| Social behavior | Helping close relatives survive (with shared genes) helps to ensure to pass those genes onto successful (living) offspring. ex: herds of zebras, prides of lions, pack of hyenas |
| Language | Vocalizations to communicate with others in the social group (calls, vibrations, words, etc) ex: meer cats, rabbits, humans |
| Pheromones | A chemical triggers a natural behavioral response in another member of the same species; ex: bees and ants |
| Courtship | Behavior that males and females of a species carry out before mating; helps identifu fit or healthy mates of the same species to ensure healthy offspring; ex: dances, gifts, songs/calls, displays |
| Territory | A geographical area defended by an animal against others of the same species. Often to defend a harem (or supply of mating females) ex: male cats urinate on or scent their territorial boundaries |
| Aggression | Behavior used to intimidate another animal of the same species in order to defend young, territory, (possibly a female(s)), or food supply; marked by growling, bearing teeth, fronting or other vicious displayys |
| Dominance Hierarchy | Social ranking within a group where some individuals rank lower than others; usually has one alpha or top-ranking individual; the alpha has exclusive breeding rights and privilege whereas the omega has little to none; ex: pecking order, pack behavior, dominant male |
| Altruistic Behavior/Indirect selection | Best explained by a "kin" theory, animals try to maintain the survival of others who share their genes. Proposed by William Hamilton. Altruists pass on genes indirectly, by helping relatives who have copies of those genes to survive and reproduce |
| Reciprocal alturism | Some animals behave altruistically toward others who are not relatives; ex: a wolf may offer food to another wolf even though they share no kinship. Such behavior can be adaptive if the aided individual returns the favor in the future. Commonly used to human behavior |
