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| Aversive Conditioning | Learning involving an unpleasant or harmful unconditioned stimulus or reinforcer. Avoidance behavior takes away the unpleasant stimulus before it begins. Escape behavior takes away the unpleasant stimulus after it starts. |
| Behavior Modification | A field that applies the behavioral approach scientifically to solve problems (applied behavior analysis) ● Token economy-operant training system that uses secondary reinforcers (tokens) to increase a list of acceptable behaviors; tokens can be exchanged for privileges |
| Biological Preparedness | Through evolution animals are predisposed to easily learn behaviors related to survival of the species ● Behaviors contrary to an animal's natural tendencies are learned slowly or not at all ● Example: People learn to fear snakes and spiders more easily than flowers or happy faces |
| Classical Conditioning | Learning that takes place when 2 or more stimuli are paired together; an unconditioned stimulus is paired with a neutral stimulus until it acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response. The subject learns to give a response it already knows to a new stimulus. |
| Classical Conditioning Acquisition Paradigm | Pattern for learning to give known response to new stimulus (NS): US --> UR; NS + US --> UR; CS --> CR Result: NS becomes CS, UR becomes CR |
| Classical Conditioning Responses | Unconditioned response (UCR or UR)--an automatic, involuntary reaction to an unconditioned stimulus ● Conditioned response (CR)--same reaction as UCR, but resulting from CS ● Learning to give a known response to a new stimulus |
| Classical Conditioning Stimuli | Neutral stimulus (NS)--stimulus that initially does not elicit a response ● Unconditioned stimulus (UCS or US)--reflexively, or automatically, brings about the unconditioned response ● Conditioned stimulus (CS)--once NS, paired with UCS, elicits conditioned R |
| Contingency Theory of Learning | Cognitivist Rescorla said the key to classical conditioning is how well the CS predicts the appearance of the UCS |
| Discrimination in Conditioning | In classical conditioning, ability to differentiate CS from similar stimuli that do not signal a UCS ● In operant conditioning, responding differently to stimuli that signal that behavior will be reinforced or not reinforced |
| Classical Conditioning Strength (Contiguity Model) | Timing of NS and US affects strength ● Delayed--NS, then brief overlap with UCS produces strongest conditioning ● Trace--NS, then US with no overlap produces moderate conditioning ● Simultaneous--NS and UCS at same time produces weak conditioning |
| Extinction | The weakening of a response ● In classical conditioning, the removal of the UCS lessens or stops the response ● In operant conditioning, the behavior lessens or stops when the reinforcement for the behavior is removed |
| Garcia Effect | Biological application of classical conditioning ● Rats exposed to radiation or poisons developed taste aversions even when they did not become nauseated until hours after being exposed to a taste ● Cancer patients show this effect |
| Generalization | In classical conditioning, CRs are elicited by stimuli that resemble the CS without training ● In operant conditioning, responding occurs when a stimulus similar, but not identical, to the discriminative stimulus is present |
| Higher Order Conditioning | Classical conditioning in which a well-learned CS (conditioned stimulus) is paired with an NS (neutral stimulus) to produce a CR (conditioned response) to the NS |
| Insight Learning | The sudden appearance or awareness of an answer or solution to a problem ● The solution is often creative and may involve putting together elements of the solution in new ways ● Does not involve either classical or operant conditioning |
| Instinctive Drift | A conditioned response that drifts back toward the natural behavior of an animal ● Explains why even after training, animals in sea shows or circuses may revert to dangerous behaviors |
| Instrumental Learning | Associative learning in which a behavior becomes more or less probable depending on its consequences |
| Interval Reinforcement Schedules | Based on time ● Fixed interval--reinforce first desired behavior after specified length of time ● Variable interval--reinforce first desired behavior after changing spans of time ● Example: studying for pop quizzes |
| Latent Learning | Learning in the absence of rewards ● In Tolman's maze studies previously unrewarded rats showed they had formed a cognitive map or mental picture of a maze during nonreinforced trials |
| Law of Effect | Thorndike's observation that behaviors followed by rewards are strengthened and behaviors followed by punishment are weakened ● Learning principle that behavior is acquired by virtue of its consequences |
| Learning | A relatively permanent change in behavior as a result of experience (nurture) |
| Negative Reinforcement | Removal of an aversive consequence that follows a voluntary behavior thereby increasing the probability the behavior will be repeated ● You do something in order to escape or avoid a consequence you don't want ● Example: Answer phone to stop its beeping |
| Omission Training | Taking away something of value from the learner follows a voluntary behavior, thereby decreasing the probability the behavior will be repeated ● The key is knowing what is rewarding for particular learner ● Example: time-out, use of car |
| Operant Conditioning (Used by Skinner) | Learning that occurs when an active learner performs certain voluntary behavior and the consequences of the behavior (pleasant or unpleasant) determine the likelihood of its recurrence ● Skinner's ABCs: antecedents, behavior, consequences |
| Partial Reinforcement Schedules in Operant Conditioning | Partial reinforcement (intermittent)--provides reinforcement only sometimes following a behavior; maintains responding that is more resistant to extinction than continuous reinforcement ● Includes fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, and variable interval |
| Positive Reinforcement | A rewarding consequence that follows a voluntary behavior, thereby increasing the probability the behavior will be repeated ● Primary reinforcer--something that is biologically important and thus rewarding ● Secondary reinforcer--rewarding through association with a primary reinforcer |
| Premack Principle | A more probable behavior can be used as a reinforcer for a less probable one ● Example: Studying can be rewarded by texting on your phone |
| Punishment | An aversive consequence that follows a voluntary behavior, thereby decreasing the probability the behavior will be repeated ● Punishment should be immediate, adequate to stop the behavior, and consistent ● Punishment can evoke hostility or cause the learner to give up |
| Ratio Reinforcement Schedules | Based on number of desired responses ● Fixed ratio--reinforce desired behavior after specific number of responses are made ● Variable ratio--the number of responses needed for reinforcement changes ● Results in lots of behavior; Example: use of machines in gambling casinos |
| Reinforcement Schedules in Operant Conditioning | A reinforcement schedule states how and when reinforcers will be given to the learner ● Continuous reinforcement--schedule that provides reinforcement following the behavior every time it is emitted; best for acquisition of a new behavior |
| Shaping (in Operant Conditioning) | Positively reinforcing closer and closer approximations of a desired behavior to teach a new behavior ● Chaining teaches a specific sequence of behaviors by initially positively reinforcing each one in a desired sequence, then rewarding only the completed sequence |
| Social Cognitive Learning (Observational Learning) | Learner learns new behavior by watching the behavior of a model ● Also called modeling ● Bandura outlined 4 steps in process: attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation (famous bobo doll experiment) |
| Superstitious Behaviors | Superstitious behaviors can result from unintended reinforcement of unimportant behavior ● Example: carrying of "lucky" pieces |
