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| Environmental policy | Policy that pertains to human interactions with the environment. It generally aims to regulate resource use or reduce pollution to promote human welfare and/or protect natural systems |
| Market failure | When markets do not take into account the environment's positive effects on economics (like ecosystem services) or when they do not reflect the negative impacts of economic activity on people or the environment (external costs). |
| Free riders | Reducing pollution tempts people to cheat and evade environmental laws. One person doing so may not hurt the effort, but if many did it would be detrimental |
| How policy is made in the US: | Legislative branch (Congress) creates a law. Legislation is approved or vetoed by the Executive branch (President). Once laws are enacted, their implementation and enforcement is assigned to the appropriate administrative agency within the executive branch. Administrative agencies are nicknamed the "fourth branch" of government because they are the source of a lot of policy in the form of regulations. By issuing regulations, administrative agencies monitor compliance with laws and regulations and enforce they when they are violated. Judicial branch interprets legislation |
| State and local law | States, counties and municipalities also generate environmental policies. State laws cannot violate principles of the U.S. Constitution, and if state and federal laws conflict, federal laws take precedent. |
| First wave of environmental policy | Laws enacted fron the 1700s to the late 1800s accompanied the westward expansion of the nation and were intended mainly to promote settlement and the extraction and use of the continent's abundant natural resources. Among these were the General Land Ordinances of 1785 and 1787, which gave the government the right to manage unsettled lands and create a system for surveying them and readying them for private ownership. Policy at the time reflected the public perception that Western lands were practically infinite and inexhaustible |
| Second wave of environmental policy | In the late 1800s the continent became more populated and its resources were increasingly exploited, public perception and government policy began to shift. Laws aimed to mitigate some of the environmental impacts associated with westward expansion. Land management policies continued through the 20th century. |
| Third wave of environmental policy | Americans were better off economically but lived with dirtier air, dirtier water, and more waste and toxic chemicals. Silent Spring awakened public opinion to the negative ecological and health effects of pesticides and industrial chemicals. |
| National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA): | Began the modern era of environmental policy. Created the Council on Environmental Quality, which requires an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) for any federal action that might significantly impact the environment. Forces the government and businesses to evaluate the environmental impacts of a project. Its cost-benefit approach usually does not halt projects |
| EPA | Created by Nixon. Charged with conducting and evaluating research, monitoring environmental quality, setting and enforcing standards for pollution levels, assisting the states in meeting standards and goals and educating the public |
| Factors that led to change and the creation of environmental policy | Wide evidence of environmental problems. People could visualize policies to deal with problems. Political climate was ripe, with a supportive public and leaders |
| International law: customary law | Practices or customs held in common by most cultures |
| International law: Conventional law | From conventions or treaties into which nations enter |
| United Nations Environment Programme | Helps nations understand and solve environmental problems. The United Nations Environment Programme, created in 1972, which helps nations understand and solve environmental problems |
| European Union (EU) | Seeks to promote Europe’s unity, economic and social progress. Can sign binding treaties and enact regulations. Can also issue advisory directives. Sees environmental regulations as barriers to trade |
| World Trade Organization | Represents multinational corporations. Promotes free trade. Can impose penalties on nations that don’t comply with its directives. Interprets environmental laws as unfair barriers to trade. Brazil and Venezuela filed a complaint against U.S. regulations requiring cleaner-burning fuel. The WTO agreed with Brazil and Venezuela, despite threats to human health. Critics charge the WTO aggravates environmental problems |
| World Bank | One of the world’s largest funding sources for economic development. Dams, irrigation, infrastructure. Funds unsustainable, environmentally damaging projects |
| Approaches to making environmental policy: Command and control | A regulating agency sets rules, standards or limits and threatens punishment for those who violate these terms |
| Approaches to making environmental policy: tax breaks | A tax break is a certain kind of subsidy. Government relieves the tax burden on an industry by reducing it |
| Approaches to making environmental policy: subsidies | Government giveaway to promote a particular activity, has been used to support unsustainable actions |
| Approaches to making environmental policy: Cap and trade | System in which the government determines the overall amount of pollution it will accept and then issues permits to polluters that allow them each to emit a certain fraction of that amount. The US mandates lower sulfur dioxide emissions |
| Steps to making policy | Identify a problem. Pinpoint causes of the problem. Envision a solution. Get organized. Cultivate access and influence. Shepherd the solution into law. Implement, assess, and interpret policy |
