| A | B |
|---|
| motivation | The various physiological and psychological factors that cause us to act in a specific wat at a particular time |
| instincts | Innate tendencies or biological forces that determine behavior |
| fixed action pattern | An innate biological force that predisposes an organism to behave in a fixed way in the presence of a specific environmental condition |
| reward/pleasure center | Several areas of the brain, such as the nucleus accumbens and the ventral tegmental area, and involves several neurotransmitters, especially dopamine; produces rewarding and pleasurable feelings |
| incentives | Goals that can be either objects or thoughts that we learn to value and that we are motivated to obtain |
| extrinsic motivation | Engaging in certain activities or behaviors that either reduce biological needs or help us obtain incentives or external rewards |
| intrinsic motivation | Engaging in certain activities or behaviors because the behaviors themselves are personally rewarding or because engaging in these activities fulfills our beliefs or expectations |
| biological needs | Physiological requirements that are critical to our survival and physical well-being |
| social needs | Needs that are acquired through learning and experience |
| Maslow's hierarchy of needs | An ascending order, or hierarchy, in which biological needs are placed at the bottom and social needs at the top; we satisfy biological needs before social needs |
| optimal/ideal weight | Results from an almost perfect balance between how much food an organism eats and how much it needs to meet its body's energy needs |
| overweight | Means that a person is 20% over the ideal body weight |
| obesity | Means that a person is 30% or more above the ideal body weight |
| biological hunger factors | Physiological changes in blood chemistry and sigbals from digestive organs that provide feedback to the brain, which, in turn, triggers us to eat or stop eating |
| psychosocial hunger factors | Learned associations between food and stimuli; sociocultural influences; and various personality problems |
| genetic hunger factors | Inherited instructions found in our genes |
| peripheral cues | Changes in blood chemistry or signals from digestive organs, which secrete various hormones |
| central cues | Result from activity in different brain areas, which in turn results in increasing or decreasing appetite |
| stomach | ghrelin |
| liver | moniters glucose level in blood; sends "hunger signals" |
| intestines | ghrelin, PYY, CCK |
| fat cells | leptin |
| hypothalamus | an area in the brain with different groups of cells, each involved in a different kind of motivation, including regulation of thirst, sexual behavior, sleep, intensity of emotional reactions, and hunger. |
| lateral hypothalamus | A group of cells that receives "hunger signals" from digestive organs; interprets "hunger signals" and increases appetite |
| ventromedial hypothalamus | a group of brain cells that receives "full signals" from digestive organs; interprets these "full signals" and decreases appetite |
| genetic hunger factors | Inherited instructions found in our genes that determine the number of fat cells or metabolic rates of burning off the body's fuel, which push is toward being normal, overweight, or underweight |
| Fat cells | Shrink when we are giving up fat and losing weight and greatly enlarge if we are storing fat and gaining weight |
| metabolic rate | How efficiently our bodies break food down into energy and how quickly our bodies burn off that fuel |
| set point | A certain level of body fat (adipose tissue) that our bodies strive to maintian constant through our lives |
| weight-regulating genes | Play a role in influencing appetite, body metabolism, and secretion of hormones (leptin) that regulate fat stores |
| genetic sex factors | Inherited instructions for the development of sexual organs, the secretion of sex hormones and the wiring of the neural circuits that control sexual reflexes |
| biological sex factors | The action of sex hormones, which are involved in secondary sexual characteristics (facial hair, breasts), sexual motivation (more so in animals than in humans), and the development of ova and sperm |
| psychological sex factors | Play a role in developing a sexual or gender identity, gender role, and sexual orientation; can result in difficulties in the performance or enjoyment of sexual activities |
| sex chromosome | contains 23, which in turn have genes that contain instructions for determining the sex of the child |
| sex hormones | Chemicals secreted by the glands that circulate in the bloodstream to influence the brain, body organs, and behaviors |
| androgens | major male sex hormones secreted by the testes |
| estrogens | major female sex hormones secreted by the ovaries |
| male hypothalamus | Triggers a continuous release of androgens, such as testosterone, from the testes |
| female hypothalamus | Triggers a cyclical release of estrogens from the ovaries |
| psychological sex factors | Play a role in developing a sexual or gender identity, gender role, and sexual orientation; can result in difficulties in the performance or enjoyment of sexual activities |
| gender identity | Refers to an individual's subjective experience and feelings of being either male or female |
| Gender identity disorder | Referred to as transsexualism; a person who has a strong and persistent desire to be the other sex, is uncomfortable about being one's assigned sex, and may wish to live as a member of the other sex |
| Gender roles | Refer to the traditional or stereotypic behaviors, attitudes, and personnality traits that society designates as masculine or feminine; influence how we think or behave |
| Sexual orientation/sexual preference | Refers to whether a person is sexually aroused primarily by members of his or her own sex, the opposite sex, or both sides |
| homosexual orientation | A pattern of sexual arousal by a person of the same sex |
| heterosexual orientation | A pattern of sexual arousal by persons of the opposite sex |
| Bisexual orientation | A pattern of sexual arousal by persons of both sexes |
| interactive model of sexual orientation | Say that genetic and biological factors, such as genetic instructions and prenatal hormones, interact with psychological factors, such as the individual's attitudes, personality traits, and behaviors, to influence the development of sexual orientation |
| double standard for sexual behavior | A set of beliefs, values, and expectations that subtly encourages sexual activity in men but discourages the same behavior in women |
| Biosocial theory | Emphasizes social and cultural forces; says that differences in sexual activities and in values for selecting mates developed from traditional cultural divisions in labor: women were primarily childbearers and homemakers, while men were primarily providers and protectors |
| evolutionary theory | Emphasizes genetic and biological forces; says that our current male-female differences in sexual behavior, which we call the double standard, arise from genetic and biological forces, which in turn grew out of an ancient set of successful mating patterns that helped the species survive |
| social needs | Desire for affiliation or close social bonds, nurturance or need to help and protect others, dominance or need to influence or control others, and achievement or need to excel; acquired through learning and experience |
| achievement need | The desire to set challenging goals and to persist in pursuing those goals in the face of obstacles, frustrations, and setbacks |
| Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) | A personality test in which subjects are asked to look at pictures of people in ambiguous situations and to make up stories about what the characters are thinking and feeling and what the outcome will be |
| high need for achievement | Shown by those who persist longer at tasks; perform better on tasks, activities, or exams; set challenging but realistic goals; compete with others to win; and are attracted to careers that require initiative |
| fear of failure | Shown by people who are motivated to avoid failure by choosing easy, nonchallenging tasks where failure is more unlikely to occur |
| self-handicapping | Doing things that contribute to failure and then using these very things, knowingly or unknowingly, as excuses for failing to achieve some goal |
| underachievers | Individuals who score relatively high on test of ability or intelligence but perform more poorly than their scores would predict |
| cognitive factors in motivation | How people evaluate or perceive a situation and how these evaluations and perceptions influence their willingness to work |
| Anorexia nervosa | A serious eating disorder characterized by refusing to eat and not maintaining weight at 85% of what is expected, having an intense fear or gaining weight or becoming fat, and missing at least three consecutive menstal cycles; also have distorted body image |
| Bulimia nervosa | Characterized by minimum of two binge-eating episodes per week for at least three months; fear of not being able to stop eating; regularly engaging in vomiting, use of laxatives. or rigorous dieting and fasting; and excessive concern about body shape and weight |
