| A | B |
|---|
| patron | financial supporter of the arts |
| humanism | intellectual movement based on the study of classical culture |
| humanities | study of subjects taught in ancient Greece and Rome such as grammar, rhetoric, poetry, and history |
| perspective | artistic technique used to gove drawings and paintings a three-dimensional effect |
| engravings | art form where an artist etches a design on a metal plate with acid |
| vernacular | everyday language of ordinary people |
| utopia | ideal society |
| indulgence | lessening of the time a soul would have to spend in purgatory |
| recant | to give up one's views or beliefs |
| predestination | the idea that God had long ago determined who would gain salvation |
| theocracy | government run by church leaders |
| annul | cancel |
| canonized | recognized as a saint |
| compromise | acceptable middle ground |
| scapegoats | someone to blame for problems |
| ghetto | a separate section of a city where members of a minority groups are forced to live |
| heliocentric | sun-centered |
| hypothesis | a possible explanation |
| scientific method | step-by-step process of discovery |
| gravity | force that tends to pull one object or mass toward another |
| conquistador | Spanish conquerors |
| immunity | resistance to disease |
| alliance | formal agreement between nations to cooperate and defend one another |
| civil war | fought between two groups of people in the same nation |
| viceroy | representatives who ruled for the king |
| plantation | large estates run by an owner or overseer |
| encomiendas | the right to demand labor or tribute from Native Americans in a particular area |
| peons | workers forced to labor for a landlord to pay off debt |
| peninsulares | people born in Spain, the top of colonial society |
| creoles | American-born descendants of Spanish settlers |
| mestizos | people of Native American and European descent |
| mulattoes | people of African and European descent |
| privateer | pirates who often operated with the approval of European governments |
| missionary | people hoping to spread Christianity to Native Americans |
| revenue | income from taxes |
| compact | an agreement among people |
| triangular trade | colonial trade route among Europe and its colonies, the West Indies, and Africa in which goods were exchanged for slaves |
| repeal | to cancel |
| monopolies | the exclusive control of a business or industry |
| inflation | sharp increase in the amount of money available |
| capitalism | the investment of money to make a profit |
| entrepreneurs | person who assumes financial risk in hopes of making a profit |
| joint stock company | private trading company in which shares are sold to investors to finance business ventures |
| mercantilism | policy by which a nation seeks to export more than it imports in order to build its supply of gold and silver |
| tariff | taxes on imported goods |
| absolute monarch | a ruler with complete authority over the government |
| divine right | the belief that the authority to rule comes directly from God |
| armada | Spanish fleet |
| intendents | royal officials who collected taxes, recruited soldiers, and carried out policies for Louis XIV |
| levee | morning ritual during which nobles would wait upon King Louis XIV |
| balance of power | a distribution of military and economic power that would prevent any one nation from dominating Europe |
| dissenter | Protestant whose views and opinions differed with the Church of England |
| habeas corpus | no person could be held in prison without first being charged with a specific crime |
| limited monarchy | type of government in which a constitution or legislative body limits the monarch's powers |
| elector | one of the seven German princes who would choose the Holy Roman Emperor |
| mercenary | soldier for hire |
| depopulation | reduction in population |
| westernization | adoption of western ideas, technology, and culture |
| boyar | Russian landowning nobles |
| warm-water port | port that is free of ice all year |
| partition | to divide up |
| natural law | laws that govern human nature |
| social contract | an agreement by which people give up the state of nature for an organized society |
| natural rights | rights that belong to all humans from birth |
| philosophe | thinkers, "lovers of wisdom" |
| physiocrat | thinkers who focused on economic reform |
| laissez faire | allowing business to operate with little or no government interference |
| censorship | restricting access to ideas and information |
| salons | informal social gatherings at which artists and writers exchange ideas |
| enlightened despots | absolute rulers who used their power to create political or social change |
| baroque | ornate style of art and architecture popular in the 1600s and 1700s |
| rococo | personal, elegant style of art and architecture popular in the mid-1700s |
| constitutional government | government whose power is defined and limited by law |
| cabinet | parliamentary advisors to the king |
| prime minister | leader of the majority party in Parliament and head of the cabinet |
| oligarchy | a government in which the ruling power belongs to a few people |
| popular sovereignty | all government power comes from the people |
| loyalist | American colonists who supported Britain and the king |
| federal republic | a government in which powers are divided between a strong central government and local governments |
| bourgeoisie | middle class |
| deficit spending | a government spending more money than it takes in |
| faction | small groups who competed to gain power |
| emigre | nobles, clergy, and others who fled France and its revolutionary forces |
| republic | government ruled by elected representatives |
| suffrage | the right to vote |
| nationalism | a strong feeling of pride in and devotion to one's country |
| secular | nonreligious |
| plebiscite | a ballot in which voters say yes or no |
| annex | add territory to an existing state or country |
| blockade | shutting off ports to keep people or supplies from moving in or out |
| guerrilla warfare | fighting carried on through hit and run raids |
| abdicate | step down from power |
| legitimacy | restoring hereditary monarchy |
| anesthetic | drug that prevents pain during surgery |
| enclosure | the process of taking over and fencing off land formerly shared by peasant farmers |
| smelt | separate iron from its ore |
| capital | wealth to invest in business |
| factory | places that bring together workers and machines to produce large quantities of goods |
| turnpikes | privately built roads that charged a fee to travelers who used them |
| urbanization | the movement of people to cities |
| tenements | multistory buildings divided into crowded apartments |
| labor unions | workers' organizations that bargained with employers for better wages, hours, and working conditions |
| utilitarianism | the idea that the goal of society should be "the greatest happiness for the greatest number" of its citizens |
| socialism | system in which people as a whole rather than private individuals own all property and operate all businesses |
| means of production | farms, factories, railways, and other large businesses that produced and distributed goods |
| communism | a form of socialism that sees class struggle between employers and employees as unavoidable |
