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| Where did the majority of people live and work for thousands of years before the Industrial Revolution? | Small farming villages |
| Where did the Industrial Revolution begin? | Britain |
| From what to what did production shift in the long, slow, uneven process of the Industrial Revolution? | Simple hand tools to complex machines |
| In 1750, what type of houses did most people live in? | Simple cottages lit by firelight and candles |
| Where did their clothing and food come from? | They made it or grew it themselves |
| Describe how most people shopped during this time. | They might exchange goods at weekly outdoor market in nearby towns |
| How far did most people travel at this time? | As far as their feet or a horse-drawn cart could take them |
| How did people travel in the Industrial Age? | By train or steamship |
| How did people communicate over long distances? | Telegraph wires |
| Anesthetic | Drug that prevents pain during surgery |
| What were three other discoveries between 1830 and 1855? | Sewing machines; measuring the speed of light; antiseptic methods to reduce women’s deaths during childbirth |
| What was partly responsible for the Industrial Revolution? | Change in the farming fields of Western Europe |
| When did the first agricultural revolution begin? | 11,000 years ago |
| What are three ways the Dutch helped usher in the second agricultural revolution? | Built dikes to reclaim land from the sea; combined smaller fields into larger ones to make better use of land; used fertilizer from livestock to renew the soil |
| How did many farmers exchange news of experiments in the 1700s? | Through farm journals |
| What were two ways British farmers were able to get higher yields? | Mixing different soils together; new methods of crop rotation |
| Lord Charles Townshend | Urged farmers to grow turnips which restored exhausted soils |
| Jethro Tull | Invented the seed drill to aid farmers by depositing seeds in rows rather than scattering them wastefully over the land |
| Enclosure | Process of taking over and consolidating land formerly shared by peasant farmers |
| Why did profits rise with enclosure? | Farm output rose and so did the profits, as larger fields needed fewer workers |
| Why did many farm laborers and small farmers migrate to towns and cities? | They were thrown out of work or lost their land |
| Statistics | Data that are gathered and tabulated to present information |
| How much did Britain’s population grow from 1700 to 1800? | From 5 million to 9 million |
| For what two reasons did the population increase occur? | Surplus of food reduced deaths from famine; better hygiene, sanitation, and medical care slowed deaths from disease |
| Thomas Newcomen | Developed a steam engine powered by coal to pump water out of mines in 1712 |
| James Watt | Scottish engineer who improved Newcomen’s steam engine to become a key power source of the Industrial Revolution in 1764 |
| For what two purposes was coal vital? | To develop the steam engine; source in the production of iron |
| Iron | Material needed for the construction of machines and steam engines |
| Smelt | Separate iron from its ore |
| Abraham Darby | Used coal instead of charcoal to smelt iron, producing less expensive and better-quality iron |
| What two factors led to a population boom in the cities? | More food production fueled population growth; homeless and jobless farmers migrated to the city |
| What characteristics of 18th century Britain made it more likely to industrialize? | Population growth; plenty of natural resources; demand for goods |
| What natural resources did Britain possess to foster industrialization? | Natural ports, navigable rivers, water power; large supply of coal and iron ore |
| What was the key ingredient need in order to increase the production of goods to meet demand? | Money (capital) |
| What helped the British economy prosper from the mid-1600s to 1700s? | Trade from a growing overseas empire |
| Capital | Money used to invest in enterprises |
| Enterprise | Business organization in an area such as shipping, mining, railroads, or factories |
| How did the British government help create an advantage for economic growth? | They built a strong navy that protected its empire, shipping, and overseas trade |
| Entrepreneur | Those who managed and assumed the financial risks of starting new businesses |
| In what industry did the Industrial Revolution first take hold in Britain? | Textile |
| Putting-out system | Cottage industry, in which raw cotton was distributed to peasant families who spun it into thread and then wove the thead into cloth in their own homes |
| Flying Shuttle | Invented by John Kay to allow weavers to work so fast they could outpace spinners |
| Spinning Jenny | Invented by James Hargreaves to spin many threads at the same time |
| Arkwright Water Frame | A spinning machine that could be powered by water |
| Eli Whitney | Invented the cotton gin that separated the seeds from the raw cotton at a fast rate |
| Factories | Buildings built to bring together workers and machines to produce large quantities of goods |
| Turnpikes | Private roads built by entrepreneurs who charged travelers a toll to use them |
| Canals | Dug to connect rivers together or to connect inland towns with coastal ports |
| What made canals lose their importance, starting in the 1830s? | Steam locomotives |
| George Stephenson | Developed steam-powered locomotives to pull carriages along iron rails |
| What advantage did railroads have over rivers? | They could go places rivers did not |
| Where did the world’s first major rail line travel? | Between Liverpool and Manchester |
| Describe the chain reaction triggered during the Industrial Revolution. | When large quantities of goods can be produced more efficiently, prices fell; lower prices made goods more affordable and created more demand for goods |
| What did this population increase lead to? | Ready supply of labor to mine coal, build factories, and run machines |
| What were conditions did working people suffer in the Industrial Revolution, before reforms raised the standard of living in Europe and the Americas? | Dangerous working conditions, unsafe, unsanitary, and over-crowded housing; unrelenting poverty |
| Urbanization | Movement of people to cities |
| What three factors led to urbanization? | Soaring population growth, changes in farming, ever-increasing demand for workers |
| How the middle class typically earn a living during industrialization? | They owned and operated the new factories, mines, and railroads |
| What was the middle class standard of living like? | Well-furnished, spacious homes on paved streets, near water supply; wore fancy clothing; ate well |
| Tenements | Multistory buildings divided into apartments |
| How did diseases such as cholera spread amongst the industrial working class? | Waste and garbage rotted in the streets and sewage dumped into the rivers, leading to contamination |
| Labor Unions | Workers’ organizations |
| Luddites | Groups of textile workers rioting against factories installing labor-saving machines at a time when labor unions were illegal |
| Methodism | Religious movement influenced by the Industrial Revolution and founded by John Wesley in the mid-1700s; encouraged followers to improve themselves by adopting sober, moral ways |
| How did the Methodist movement help workers during the initial days of industrialization? | It channeled workers’ anger away from revolution and toward reform |
| How did working on a farm differ from working in a factory? | Their work varied according to the season and they worked at their own pace; factory workers faced a rigid work schedule |
| How long did factory workers typically work? | 12 to 16 hours, six or seven days a week |
| Why was this schedule hazardous? | Exhausted workers suffered accidents from machines that had no safety devices |
| Provide three reasons more women were hired to work in the factories than men. | It was thought that women could adapt more easily to machines, were easier to manage, and employers generally paid them half of what they paid men |
| What were the working conditions of mines like? | They worked in darkness, the coal dust destroyed miners’ lungs, there were threats of explosions, flooding, and collapsing tunnels |
| How old were many boys and girls when they started working in factories and mines? | Seven or eight, some as early as age 5 |
| “Factory Acts” | Child labor reform laws passed in the early 1800s to reduce a child’s workday to twelve hours and to remove children under the age of eight from the cotton mills |
| In what ways did early labor unions bargain from employers? | Better wages, hours, and working conditions |
| What gave working-class men political power? | They gained the right to vote |
| Thomas Malthus | British economist published An Essay on the Principle of Population, concluding the poverty was unavoidable because the population was increasing faster than the food supply |
| Physiocrats | Argued that government argued that natural laws should be allowed to operate without interference |
| Laissez-faire | “Hands-off” approach |
| Adam Smith | Main proponent of laissez-faire economics, asserting that a free market approach would help everyone in The Wealth of Nations |
| Free market | Unregulated exchange of goods and services |
| How would a free market help everyone? | It would produce more goods at lower prices, making them affordable to everyone |
| What would a growing economy encourage capitalists to do? | Reinvest profits in new ventures |
| What were the natural checks on population Malthus discussed? | War, disease, famine |
| What did he encourage people to do to prevent large population increases? | Have fewer children and discourage charitable handouts and vaccinations |
| In what ways was Malthus proven wrong? | Living conditions improved; people began to have fewer children; the food supply grew faster than he anticipated |
| Why did David Ricardo believe wage increases were not going to help? | They would only cover the cost of necessities; that families often had more children instead of raising the family’s current standard of living when wages were high |
| Jeremy Bentham | British philosopher who advocated utilitarianism |
| Utilitarianism | The idea that the goal of society should be “the greatest happiness for the greatest number” of its citizens |
| In what circumstances did economist John Stuart Mill believe the government should intervene? | When middle-class business and factory owners’ increases in business would harm workers |
| Lanark, Scotland | Site of Robert Owen’s experiment with utopia, where he set up a community around his cotton mill |
| What political reforms of Mills did most middle-class people reject initially? | Giving the vote to workers and women |
| Socialism | People as a whole rather than private individuals would own and operate the means of production |
| Means of production | Farms, factories, railways, and other large business that produce and distribute goods |
| What made Robert Owen different from most industrialists of his time? | He refused to use child labor, campaigning for laws against it and he encouraged labor unions |
| Karl Marx | German philosopher who, along with Friedrich Engels, wrote The Communist Manifesto |
| Communism | System in which governments led by a small elite controlled all economic and political life |
| Who were the “haves” and the “have-nots” according to Marx? | Bourgeoisie were the “haves” and the working class were the “have-nots” |
| Proletariat | Working class |
| According to Marx, what should a communist society be like? | A classless society where wealth and power would be equally shared |
| Social democracy | Political ideology in which there is a gradual transition from capitalism to socialism instead of a sudden violent overthrow of the system |
| What event led to the Russians setting up a communist-based government? | Russian Revolution of 1917 |
| Why did most communist governments fail by the end of the 20th century? | People felt a stronger tie to nationalism than to the international communist movement |
