| A | B |
|---|
| Priming | Activating particular associations in memory |
| Embodied Cognition | The mutual influence of bodily sensations on cognitive preferences and social judgments |
| Kulechov Effect | A Russian film director who would skillfully guide viewers’ inferences by manipulating their assumptions oFilmmakers control people’s perceptions of emotion by manipulating the setting in which they see a face |
| Belief Perseverance | Persistence of one’s initial conceptions, such as when the basis for one’s belief is discredited but an explanation of why the belief might be true survives |
| Misinformation Effect | Incorporating “misinformation” into one’s memory of the event, after witnessing an event and receiving misleading information about it |
| Rosy Retrospection | They recall mildly pleasant events more favorably than they experienced them |
| Controlled Processing | "Explicit" thinking that is deliberate, reflective, and conscious |
| Automatic Processing | "Implicit" thinking that is effortless, habitual, and w/o awareness; roughly corresponds to “intuition” |
| Schemas | Mental concepts or templates that intuitively guide our perceptions and interpretations |
| Emotional Reactions | Often nearly instantaneous, happening before there is time for deliberate thinking |
| Blindsight | Having lost a portion of the visual cortex to surgery or stroke, people may be functionally blind in part of their field of vision |
| Unconscious Thinking | w/ a decision but lacking the expertise to make an informed snap judgment, may guide us toward a satisfying choice |
| Explicit Thinking | Facts, names, and past experiences we remember conciously |
| Implicit Thinking | Other things—skills and conditioned dispositions—we remember w/o consciously knowing or declaring that we know |
| Overconfidence Phenomenon | The tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of one’s belief |
| Incompetence Feeds Overconfidence | It takes competence to recognize what competence is |
| The "Planning Fallacy" | Most of us overestimate how much we’ll be getting done, and therefore how much free time we will have |
| Stockbroker Overconfidence | Investment experts market their service w/ the confident presumption that they can beat the stock market average, forgetting that for every stockbroker or buyer saying “Sell!” |
| Political Overconfidence | Overconfident decision makers can wreak havoc • People tend to recall their mistaken judgments as times when they were almost right |
| Confirmation Bias | A tendency to search for information that confirms one’s preconceptions |
| Remedies for Overconfidence | Three techniques have reduced the overconfident bias: Prompt Feedback, Unpack a task, Why might be wrong |
| Prompt Feedback | Receive clear, daily feed back, experts in both groups do quite well at estimating their probable accuracy |
| Unpack a Task | To break it down into its subcomponents—and estimate the time required for each |
| Why Might Be Wrong | Get people to think of one good reason why their judgments might be wrong; that is, force them to consider disconfirming information |
| Heuristic | A thinking strategy that enables quick, efficient judgments |
| Representativeness Heuristic | The tendency to presume, sometimes despite contrary odds, that someone or something belongs to a particular group if resembling (representing) a typical member |
| Availability Heuristic | A cognitive rule that judges the likely hood of things in terms of their availability in memory. If instances of something come readily to mind, we presume it to be commonplace |
| Counterfactual Thinking | Imagining alternative scenarios and outcomes that might have happened, but didn’t |
| Illusory Thinking | Influences on everyday thinking is our search for order in random events, a tendency that can lead us down all sorts of wrong paths |
| Illusory Correlation | Perception of a relationship where none exists, or perception of a stronger relationship than actually exists |
| Illusion of Control | Perception of uncontrollable events as subject to one’s control or as more controllable than they are |
| Regression Toward the Average | The statistical tendency for extreme scores or extreme behavior to return toward one’s average |
| Misattribution | Mistakenly attributing behavior to the wrong source |
| Attribution Theory | The theory of how people explain others’ behavior—for example, by attributing it either to internal dispositions (enduring traits, motives, and attitudes) or to external situations |
| Dispositional Attribution | Attributing behavior to the person’s disposition and traits |
| Situational Attribution | Attributing behavior to the environment |
| Spontaneous Trait Inference | An effortless, automatic inference of a trait after exposure to someone’s behavior |
| Fundamental Attribution Error | The tendency for observers to underestimate situational influences and overestimate dispositional influences upon others’ behavior o Also called correspondence bias b/c we so often see behavior as corresponding to a disposition |
| Dispositional Attribution | Ascribes behavior to the person’s disposition and traits |
| Situational Attributions | Tend to adopt political positions that offer more direct support to the poor |
| Self-Fulfilling Prophecies | A belief that leads to its own fulfillment |
| Behavioral Confirmation | A type of self-fulfilling prophecy whereby people’s social expectations lead them to behave in ways that cause others to confirm their expectations |
