| A | B |
|---|
| A complex structure used to maintain genetic information | nucleic acids |
| DNA (deoxyribonucleuc acid) | serves as the master copy for most information in the cell |
| RNA (ribonucleic acid) | acts to transfer infromation from DNA to the rest of the cell |
| DNA and RNA composition is similar? | TRUE |
| What do both DNA and RNA compose of? | a sugar/phosphate backbone to which nitrogeneous bases are attached |
| RNA uses | ribose |
| DNA uses | deoxyribose |
| what are the two classes of nitrogeneous bases | purines and pyrimidines |
| a double ring structure, | purines |
| A six member ring structure, | pyrimidines |
| purines used by both DNA and RNA | includes adenine and guanine, |
| pyrimidines used by DNA and RNA | cytosine |
| pyrimidines used by DNA | Thymine |
| pyrimidines used by RNA | Uracil |
| what is produced if the OH on the sugar of a nucleoside is convertes into a phosphate ester | nucleotide |
| primary structure of nitrogeneous bases | phosphate bonds link DNA and RNA nucleotides together in a linear sequence |
| causes each DNA chain to coil around the outside of the attached bases | sugar-phosphate backbone |
| hydrogen bonding occurs between purines and pyrimidines. This causes two DNA strands to bond together | A-T C-G Base pairing |
| secondary and tertiary structure results in what? | a double helix structure |
| why is it A-T and C-G | because each base wants either two or three hydrogen bonds |
| consits of DNA strands coiled around histones | chromosomes |
| DNA replication occurs... | each time a cell divides |
| after initial seperation of two strands occurs | transport of completmentary nucleotides to each strand and then the production on a new strand leads to a new molecule of DNA forms |
| what does the process of DNA replication require to work | enzymes |
| DNA is a self directed process that relies on many what? | accesory proteins |
| what serves as a template during replication by unwinding in small regions | each strand |
| What is used to covalently link the DNA backbone | DNA polymerase |
| each new DNA molecule contains | one new and one original strand |
| replication of DNA always occurs | from 5 to 3 direction |
| replication occurs in both halves in what directions? | opposite |
| genetics is the study of | how information is transferred, how and when traits are expressed, and mutations and aberrations |
| DNA strands that occur as paris in our cells | chromosomes |
| each parent donates | one strand of chromosomes |
| when cells replicate, the chromosomes are reproduced via | mitosis |
| when cells are made for reproduction, what process is used? | meiosis |
| the sperm and ova both have on type of what? | each chromosome |
| the crossover of portions of one DNA to another long with randomnizaiton assures that offspring... | differ from the parents |
| genes | some factors that differ which results in each individual expressing slightly different traits |
| ideograms | diagrammatic representation of a chromosome compliment of a karyotype |
| what is the banding method in ideograms | its used to dye chromosomes, and markers identify species, chromosome, and location |
| actually genetic makeup of an individual | genotype |
| observed trait for an individual | phenotype |
| a pair of genes forms an | allele |
| what is hemophilla | a sex linked genetic disorder in which blood clotting is deficent |
| in hemophilla what substrate is lacking | thrombroplastin |
| Hemophilla A | lack of antihemophillic globulin (most common type 80%) |
| Hemophilla B | defect in thromboplastic component |
| a sex linked trait is found on what chromosome | X |
| is hemophilla dominant or recessive? | recessive and only passed on the X chromosome |
| when traits are passed not only due to a single allele | multiple alleles |
| ABO is made from the cross of | multiple alleles |
| blood type is based on | antigens in red blood cells |
| mutation | a sudden randomn alteration of original DNA code that changes a genotype |
| mutagens are.. | changes in DNA that are caused by chemical or environmental factors |
| sickle cell anemia has a mutation of a gene that makes part of a ... | hemoglobin |
| albanism | the lack of ability to produce tyrosinase which catalyzes the conversion of tyrosine to DOPA |
| what are examples of ionizing radiation that causes genetic mutations | X-rays, gamma rays, cosmic rays |
| what are nonionizing radiation factors that cause genetic mutations | UV light |
| reactants with bases, base analogs, acridine dyes, alkylating agents, and others are examples of | chemical genetic mutations |
| the cell yeast contains 50 what? | repair enzymes |
| tanning causes formation of | thymine dimer |
| Photodimerization | exposure to UV light that causes adjacent thymines to covalently bind |
| what acts as a thymine dimer repair? | E. Coli |
| Xeroderma Pigmentosum | genetic disorder where repair mechanism does not work |
| when a portion of a DNA strand is affected | mutation |
| Chromosomal Aberration | absence of a chromosome or large portions of one, presence of an extra chromosomes |
| Euploids | characterized by posessing entire sets of chromosomes |
| Monolipids | one entire set |
| Diploids | two entire sets |
| Polyploids | three or more entire sets |
| polyploids are rare in what sex? | males |
| polyploids that are common crop plants are? | bannanas, coffee, cotton, potato, and wheat |
| hybrids | make hardier better producing plants |
| aneuploidy | loss or addition of a single chromosome |
| Anueploids | altered shapes and proportions |
| chromosomal aberrations may account for what? | evolutionary changes |
| what is an example of trisomy in a male | down syndrome (a third chromosome of a specific type) |
| signs of down syndrome include | mental retardation, below average height, pecularity of an eye lid, sloping forehead, flattened nose bridge, low-set ears, short broad hands, cardiac malformations |
| Edwards Syndrome | multiple structural malformations and death by 3-4 months |
| Pataus syndrome | mental retardation death occurs a few hours or days after birth |
| RNA is produced by.. | transcription of genes along a DNA strand, DNA may contain all the information but RNA does all of the work |
| Messanger RNA | copy of genetic information in DNA/ used to make proteins |
| transfer RNA | small RNA molecule used to bring the correct amino acid to the site of protein synthesis |
| Ribosomal RNA | platform for protein synthesis, holds mRNA in place and helps assemble proteins |
| RNA synthesis (3 things) | 1. is a portion of DNA that us used to make any RNA 2. a way to tell where to start and stop transcription 3. use a systems of promoter and termination sequences |
| How does RNA synthesis work, what are the steps 5 ? | 1. RNA polymerase binds to a promotor sequence of the DNA chain 2. the DNA strands seperate 3. SPecial base sequences in the DNA indicates where RNA starts and stops 4.Once termination is reached the new RNA molecule and the RNA synthase are released 5. the DNA recoils |
| prokaryotic organisms what are they, what dont they have and are nucleotide sequences used? | bacteria, no membrane bound nucleus, and all nucleotide sequences of a gene are used |
| Eukaryotic organisms what are they, do they have a membrane bound nucleus, and are all nucleotide sequences used? | higher forms of life, they have a membrane bound nucleus, and portions of their genetic code are not used |
| Mature MRNA carries a code for? | protein synthesis |
| codon | a sequence on the mRNA |
| anticodon | a sequence on the tRNA |
| a codon/anticodon pair must bewhat? | a matching series of complimentary bases |
| initiation | AUG |
| termination | UAG,UAA, UGA |
| what are the advantages and disadvantages of the system | the genetic code is almost fullproof, it is somewhat mutation resistant, and the system is not perfect if the first base is wtong the whole amino acid will be |
| where does protein synthesis occur? | in a ribosome and its the ribsomal RNA and proteins |
| large proteins | three rRNA and 49 proteins |
| small proteins | one rRNA and about 33 proteins |
| when two ribsomal units join they form a | polysome |
| protein synthesis steps (3) | intiation (AUG codon) , 2. protein synthesis, 3. termination |
| translocation | an enzyme is used to move the ribosome down and mRNA strand |
| DNA recombination or molecular cloning | covalent insertion of a DNA fragment from one cell or organism into the replicating DNA of anotehr |
| cloning vectors- | a self replicating circular double stranded DNA that contains information for translation of specialized and protective proteins |
| what kind of DNA must be prepared for insertion? | foreign double stranded DNA preperation is done through chemical synthesis, restriction endonucleases and reverse transrpition |
| transformation | introduction of the hybrid DNA into a host cell |
| polymerase chain reactions | amplify DNA and it makes multiple compies of DNA without cloning it |
| what does restriction endonucleases do? | split DNA into smaller strands |
| this provides more manageable sections to seperate | restriction endonucleases |
| polymerase chain reaction | amplifies the sample giving more to measure |
| tracers | radiolabeled materials |
| What does PCR require? | heat stable DNA, 4 deoxyribonucleides, and 2 synthetic oligouclitides |
