| A | B |
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| Passive Transport includes what? | Osmosis, facilitated diffusion, and simple diffusion. |
| Why does Sodium exhibit a "higher diffusion rate" through the 100 membrane? | The smaller the particles, the higher the diffusion rate. |
| In facilitated diffusion are particles allowed to travel against their concentration gradients? | No. (Against= moving from Low to High) |
| Name two ways to increase the rate of Glucose transport.. | Higher concentration of Glucose molecules and High number of Glucose Carriers. |
| Does NaCl (sodium chloride) require a transport protein for diffusion? | No. |
| What is the definition of Osmosis?. / And does it require energy? | The movement of water across a semi-permeable membrane, where the H20 moves from an area of Low Solute Concentration to an are of High Solute Concentration./ No. |
| How does Solute Concentration affect Osmotic pressure? | The Higher the Solute Concentration, The Higher the Osmotic Pressure. |
| In Active Transport, does the presence of Glucose carrier proteins affect Na+ (sodium) transport? | No. |
| Can Na+(sodium) be transported against its concentration gradient?/ If so, where can this be seen? | Yes./ Primary Active transport, Sodium Potassium Pump. |
| What is the ratio between Na+ and K+ in Primary Active transport? | 3 Na+ leave the cell, while 2 K+ enter the cell. |
| What main characteristic of the semi-permeable membrane used in simple diffusion and filtration experiments determines which substances pass through them?/ What are 3 other factors that determine passage through living membranes? | Molecular weight/ Solubility of liquids, Charge, and presence of carrier molecules. |
| What accounts for the movement of fats and gases through the plasma membrane and uses hydrostatic pressure or molecular energy as its driving force?. | Passive Transport. |
| What moves Ion, amino acids, and sugars across the plasma membrane... And also explains solute pumping, bulk-phase endocytosis, and pinocytosis? | Active transport. |
| What is the movement of molecules from one location to another as a result of their random thermal motion? | Diffusion. |
| What is the movement of solutes down their concentration gradients? (High to Low)/ Give an example that uses this process. | Simple diffusion/ Ex- Oxygen |
| What is the Net movement of Fluids or Solutes Out of capillaries? Is this process passive or active? | Filtration/ Passive process |
| What is Active Transport?/ What are the two types and what are the Examples of them? | The movement of Solutes from an Area of Low solute concentration to an area of high solute concentration./ There is Primary Active Transport, Ex- Sodium Potassium Pump which requires ATP... Then there is the Secondary Active Transport which is an example of (SGLT) Sodium Glucose Transport, and does NOT require ATP. |
| Give two examples of facilitated diffusion./ Does facilitated diffusion require energy? | (GLUT) Glucose Transport, Na+ channles, and amino acids/ No, but it does require a protein carrier or channel! |
| Name 4 Non-Polar substances that will diffuse through the plasma membrane fairly rapidly.? | Oxygen, Carbon Dioxide, Fatty Acids, and Steroids. |
| What type of diffusion is Osmosis more like? | Facilitated Diffusion. |
| Is water a Polar olecule or NonPolar molecule? How does it cross the lipid bilayer? | Polar molecule/ crosses by use of Aquaporin proteins. |
| What is the reversal of membrane potential due to an influx of sodium ions? | Depolarization |
| Term that refers to a membrane potential of about -70mv is what? | Resting membrane potential. |
| Minimal stimulus needed to elicit an action potential. | Threshold. |
| Period when cell membrane is totally insensitive to additional stimuli, regardless of the stimulus force applied. | Absolute refractory period. |
| T?F the inside of the cell membrane is negative? If so, why? | True/ because of Intracellular proteins. |
| What is the reversal of a membranes polarity? | An Action Potential. |
| T/F.? A depolarization is any change in a neuron that makes it more positive than resting potential. | True |
| What is, the propagation of action potentials along myelinated axons from one node of Ranvier to the next node, increasing the conduction velocity of action potentials? | Saltatory Conduction. |
| What is the difference in electrical charge across the plasma membrane? | Resting membrane potential. |
| T/F..? Resting Membrane potential is Polarized. | True |
| Where is a membrane's "trigger zone"? | The Axon Hillock |
| When the interior surface membrane of a cell becomes less negative (more +) and the exterior surface becomes less positive (more -), is called what? | Depolarization. |
| What is known as the flow of potassium ions out of the cell, causing the membrane potential to become more negative? | Repolarization. |
| What types of stimuli can elicit an AP? | Heat, Chemicals, electricity, and Mechanical stimuli. |
| What is the difference between teleological and mechanistic questions? | Teleological= "Why or Purpose"/ Mechanistic= "How or by What process". |
| Claude Bernard vs. Walter Cannon....? | Bernard- stated "life requires a stable internal environment, and he called it " Milieu Interior"/ Cannon- coined the term "homeostasis". |
| Name two regulatory mechanisms through homeostasis and give their definitions. | Intrinsic control- built into the regulated organ./ Extrinsic control- Comes from outside of the organ, by way of the Nervous or endocrine System. Ex- nervous control of body temperature. |
| Homeostatic control of body temperature is an example of what kind of mechanistic homeostasis control? Is this a positive or negative feed-back loop? | Extrinsic/ Negative. |
| Are positive feedback loops Homeostatic?/ What is an example of a (+) feedback loop? | No./ Child Birth. (There has to be something that stops the cycle within a (+) Loop and the babies birth in this is what stops it. |
| What is an Isotope? | Different forms of the same Atom./ Atomic number is the same, but Atomic Mass if different because it contains a different number of "NEUTRONS". |
| What is the sum of Protons and Neutrons? | The Atomic Mass |
| What is the number of Protons in an Atom? | The Atomic Number |
| What is the smallest unit of chemical elements? | Atoms |
| T/F..? Anything with a Phosphate group is Polar? | True |
| T/F..? Electrons in more distant shells of an atom have less energy..? | False, they have more energy. |
| What electrons in the outermost shell of an atom can participate in chemical reactions and form bonds? | Valence electrons. |
| How do molecules form? | By chemical bonding between Valence electrons of Atoms. |
| What are the three main types of bonds? What is the strongest to weakest bonds? | 1. Covalent/ 2. Ionic/ 3. Hydrogen./.... Strongest is the Covalent bond, then Ionic, then Hydrogen Bond. |
| Name the two types of Covalent bonds and their definition... | Non-Polar Covalent bond= Shares electrons equally. ex- H2 or O2/ Polar Covalent Bond- Share electrons unequally. ex- H2O |
| What is an atom called, that loses an electron called? | Cation (positively charged) |
| What is an atom called, that gains and electron? | Anion (Negatively charged) |
| What kind of bond dissolves in H2O? Why? | Ionic bonds/ Because of Hydration spheres. |
| What kind of bond can form a polar bond with another atom by taking on a slight (+) charge? | Hydrogen Bond |
| What kind of molecules dissolve in water to make aqueous solutions? Why do they dissolve in water?/ What are some examples? | Hydrophilic molecules (water loving)/ Because they form hydration spheres./ Glucose and amino acids. |
| Do Acids or Bases release H+ Protons? Which one is the Proton Acceptor? | Acids./ Bases |
| What kind of molecules are Non Polar? What about Polar? | HydroPhobic molecules/ Hydrophilic molecules. |
| What substances resist changes in pH by either combining with or releasing H+ Ions?/ What is the most important of these in the body? And what does it do? | Buffers/ Bicarbonate Buffer System in the Blood- regulates body pH. |
| What is the normal range of Arterial blood in the body? What is it called if the blood pH goes below 7.35? What about above 7.45? | 7.35-7.45/ Acidosis/ Alkalosis |
| What are two types of passive transport? Name two types of Active Transport.? | Simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion. / Primary and Secondary diffusion. |
| Between the SGLT and the Na+/K+ Pump, which is the Symporter and which is the Anti-symporter? | SGLT= Symporter, because both Sodium and Glucose are going INTO the cell/ Na+/K+ Pump are going in and out! |
| If a cell is placed within a Hypotonic solution, what happens? | If the solution is HYPOtonic then the extracellular fluid has less solutes than the Inside of the cell (intracellular fluid), which causes H2O to move from a low solute concentration to high solute concentration. Swelling the Cell! |
| T/F..? If one solution has a higher solute concentration than another solution, then it is said that it has a Lower Osmotic Pressure.? | False/ Higher Osmotic Pressure. |
| What word describes the solution "Outside" of the cell? | Tonicity. |
| What describes a solution and how it would affect cell volume? | Tonicity. |
| What depends on non-penetrating solutes? | Tonicity. |
| What uses Hydrostatic pressure within the body? | Filtration |
| What are organic Molecules that contain carbon, oxygen and hydrogen? | Carbohydrates. |
| Give three examples of Monosaccahrides. | Glucose, Fructose, and Galactose. |
| What has two Monosaccahrides joined covalently?? Give Three examples of them. | Dissacharides/ Sucrose, Maltose, and Lactose. |
| What has many monosaccharodes linked together? Give two examples. | Polysaccharides./ Starch and Glycogen |
| What reduces Osmotic load? | Polysaccharides. |
| What is formed Formed by condensation of 1 glycerol & 3 fatty acids? | Triglycerides. |
| Saturated vs. Unsaturated fatty acids? Give examples. | Saturated= (Butter) Hydrocarbon chains are joined by a single bond./ Unsaturated= (Oils) If hydrocarbon chains are joined by a double bond. |
| What are lipids that contain a phosphate group? | Phospholipids. |
| What aggregates in micelles in water and act as sufactants? | Phospholipids in the bilayer. |
| What Lipid is a precursor for steroid hormones? | Cholesterol. |
| What renders the differences between amino acids? | The "R" group which is the Functional group. It determines its function. |
| What are linked by peptide bonds and formed by dehydration reactions.? | Amino Acids. |
| If there are less than 100 amino acids linked together then what is it called? | Polypeptide. |
| What are the 4 structures that build proteins? | Primary-polypeptide strand/ Secondary- Alpha Helix and Beta pleated sheet./ Tertiary- folding of peptide chains and amino acids bond together./ Quaternary- forms when multiple polpeptide chains are covalently joined. |
| What are DNA and RNA made up of? And what does this Biomolecule consist of? | Long chains of Nucleotides./ 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group and a nitrogenous base. |
| What are the two base types and what do they consist of? | Pyrimidines= C and T bases (Smaller) /Purines= A and G bases (Larger). |
| Name 4 energy storage molecules. / What molecule is responsible for cell signaling? | ADP, ATP, NAD, and FAD/ cAMP |
| What 5 Carbon Deoxyribose sugar covalently bonds to one of the 4 bases?/ What holds these bonds together with other deoxyribose sugars? | DNA/ Hydrogen bonds |
| The number or Purines= the Number of Pyrimidines, is called what? Give example of such. | Law of Complimentary base pairing. (A goes with T/ G goes with C) |
| Give an example of a molecule or substance that will use these types of transport; Simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, Primary Active, Secondary Active, | Simple diffusion- Oxygen/ Facilitated diffusion- Na+ and GLUT/ Primary active- Na+/K+ pump/ Secondary Active- SGLT. |
| What is the difference between Smooth ER and Rough ER? | Smooth ER- has no ribosomes and helps with detoxification of the cell./ Rough ER- Has ribosomes and they serve to ship proteins. |
| Within the Cytoskeleton what part is the largest to smallest parts? | Largest- Microtubules, then intermediate filaments, ans then Microfilaments. |
| What are the different compartments of a Mitochondira? | The Cristae, The Matrix, The Inner membrane, The Intermembrane space, and then the Outer membrane. |
| What starts the process of protein synthesis? | RNA Polymerase (Transcription) |
| Name three types of neurons. | Pseudounipolar, Bipolar, and Multipolar. |
| Name 2 pairs of Glial cells within neurons that are similar.? And also state whether they are from the CNS or PNS..? | 1.) Astrocytes (CNS) and Satellite cells (PNS)/ 2.) Oligodendrocytes (CNS) and Schwann cells (PNS) (mylenation) |
| Are channels closed or open at resting membrane potential? | Closed. |
| What subatomic particle can be shared or donated in a bond between atoms? | Electrons |
| Which Ion flows into a nerve cell to depolarize it? | Na+ |
| What is the most important ion channel for maintaining resting membrane potential? | K+ leak channel (Its always open and keeps Vm at about -70 mV. |
| What are Refractory periods? Name two and name what they are due to..? | Are times where additional stimulation will NOT elicit an impulse./ Absolute Refractory period- due to "Inactivated" (Na+) Sodium channels... and... Relative Refractory period- due to continued outward diffusion of (K+) Potassium. |
| What is known as when, multiple electrical action potentials combine at the axon hillock? | Summation. |
| What is the difference between Nicotinic receptors and Muscarinic receptors? | Both are ACh Receptors/Nicotinic receptors- Has a channel. Are "excitatory", because more Na+ goes into the cell than K+ goes out. They are found in neurons and muscle cells./ Muscarinic receptors- Has NO channel and uses G-Proteins. They are "Inhibitory". Can be found on smooth muscle, the heart, and in the CNS. |
| Name the 4 steps within the presynaptic mechanics. | 1.) Action Potentials reach the Axon Terminal./ 2.) Voltage gated Ca2+ open/ 3.) Ca2+ that moved into Cytoplasm activates proteins, leading to the fusion of vesicles with the plasma membrane./ 4.) Pore forms in the fused vesicle and the neurotransmitter is released via exocytosis. |
| What is Acetylcholinesterase? | It is an enzyme that disposes of extra ACh neurotransmitter in the synapse. |
| Can Muscarinic receptors be Both Excitatory and Inhibitory? If so, where? | Yes. Excitatory- in the Gut/ Inhibitory- Smooth muscle, heart, and CNS. |
| What is GABA? What kind of (PSP) Post Synaptic Potential does it produce? | A Inhibitory neurotransmitter that helps control motor neurons and sleep./ It produces an IPSP Inhibitory! |
| What Post Synaptic Potential produces Hyperpolarization.? | Inhibitory (IPSP) |
| What side of the cell are activation gates on? | Outside of cell (extra-cellular side) |
| What side of the cell are Inactivation gates on? | Inside of the cell (intra-cellular side) |
| When GABA attaches to its receptor, what does its channel allow in, and how does this affect the cell? | It allows in Cl- (chloride ions) that make the inside of the cell more negative than resting potential, allowing for sleep and relaxing motor neurons. |
| Is Endocytosis and example of active transport? | Yes. |
| Does the SGLT move Glucose against its concentration gradient or down its gradient? | Against. |
| Is Norepinephrine a Hormone or Neurotransmitter?/ What about Epinephrine? | Both, but more likely to be a neurotransmitter./ It is more likely to be a hormone. |
| Give the steps that the Neurotransmitter Norepinephrine takes in its cycle. | First Norepinephrine binds to its a receptor site. Then its G-Proteins dissociate to bind with Adenylate Cyclase receptor. Where cAMP activates protein Kinase to open Ion channels. |
| What two receptor sites contain G-Proteins? Name the neurotransmitters associated with them. | Muscarinic- ACh/ Adrenergic- Norepinephrine. |
| T/F..? Both preganglionic sympathetic fibers and preganglionic parasympathetic fibers are cholinergic? | True |
| Name three catelcholamines./ Are they Adrenergic, Muscarinic, or Nicotinic?/ And what they are derived from? | Dopamine, Norepinephrine, and epinephrine./ Are ALL Adrenergic./Derived from Tyrosine. |
| What Monoamine is derived from Tryptophan? | Serotonin. |
| T/F...? Monoamine Oxidase breaks down other monoamines after reuptake.? | True. |
| Name three characteristics of Hormones that distinguish them from Neurotransmitters. | 1.) Released into the blood/ 2.) Acts on Distant Targets./ 3.) They work at very low levels. |
| Give an example of a "Hormone" that travels through the plasma membrane via simple diffusion and One that does NOT!?... | Hormone through simple diffusion= Testosterone./ Hormone that does NOT= Epinephrine (because it is a Protein) |
| Give an example of a "Neurotransmitter" that travels through the plasma membrane and one that does NOT?... | Neurotransmitter through dimple diffusion= Nitric Oxide (Non-Polar)/ Neurotransmitter that does NOT= ACh, Seretonin, Dopamine. (Because these only bind to their sites outside of the cell.) |
| What does Glycolysis begin with and End with?/ Where does it take place and does it require oxygen? /How many ATP and NADH are produced in this process? | Begins with 1 Glucose molecule and Ends with2 Pyruvate, then Lactic Acid./ Takes place in the Cytosol and does NOT require oxygen (anaerobic)./ 2 ATP and 2 NADH |
| What are Fatty acids broken down through within the mitochondria? | Beta-Oxidation. |
| T/F..? Amino acids can be utilized to make ATP through the Krebs cycle? | True |
| T/F..? Fatty acids are a source of acetyl-CoA? | True. |
| T/F..? Pyruvate is transported into the mitochondria and is decarboxylated and linked to coenzyme A, becoming acetyl coenzyme A, and producing CO2? | True. |
| After Pyruvate Oxidizes, what happens? | Acetyl-CoA is placed into the Krebs cycle where 2 ATP, CO2, FADH and NADH are produced. From here the electrons from NADH and FADH are donated to the Electron Transport chain where these elctrons pull in Hydrogen ions and make inter-membrane more acidic. |
| Anaerobic metabolism produces how many ATP per Glucose and where? | Produces 2 ATP in the Cytosol. |
| Aerobic metabolism produces what per Glucose molecule and where? | 6 H2O, 30-32 ATP, and 6 CO2, in the Mitochondria. |
| NAD+ is derived from niacin, which is what Vitamin? | Vitamin B3 |
| Pyruvate is transported into the mitochondria and is decarboxylated and linked to coenzyme A, becoming acetyl coenzyme A... This requires what Vitamins? | Vitamins B5 and B1 |
| What is a collection of neuron cell bodies outside of the CNS? | Ganglion. |
| Are Autonomic Ganglion Nicotinic or Muscarinic? | Nicotinic. |
| What do Adrenergic receptors refer to? | Norepinephrine and EPi. |
| How do you calculate HR? | HR= 1/period ( If period =0.5, then) = 1/0.5 sec. x 60sec./1min.= 120bpm |
| When this neurotransmitter is in the Synapse, the synapse is said to be___________? | Cholinergic. |
| What type of ACh receptor is activated by post ganglionic parasympathetic axons? | Muscarinic. |
| Which muscle controlling pupil size causes the eye to contract? What Part of the Nervous system is this related to? | The Sphincter muscle/ PNS |
| Which muscle controlling pupil size, causes the eye to Dilate? | Dilator Pupillae muscle/ SNS |
| What Neurotransmitters does Tyrosine produce, and Where is this taking place? | Norepinephrine, Epinephrine, and Dopamine./ Taking place in the Adrenal Medulla. |
| What Neurotransmitter is called "adrenaline"? Is it also a Hormone? | Epinephrine/ Yes. |
| What is vascular tone? | Constriction of blood vessels relative to their maximally dilated state. |
| Name the stages of cellular respiration., AND describe... | Stage 1= First Glucose goes through "Glycolysis"- where it yields 2 ATP, 2 NADH, and 2 molecules of "Pyruvic Acid"../ Stage 2= "Pyruvate Oxidation"- The 2 molecules of Pyruvate then move into the matrix of the mitochondria where they combine with Coenzyme A to create "Acetyl CoA" (which requires Vitamins B1 and B5) and give off 1 NADH and CO2./ Stage 3= "Krebs Cycle"- Acetyl CoA then turns into Citric Acid, which then yields 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, 1 ATP and C02./ Stage 4= "ETC"- NADH and FADH2 both carry electrons to the chain, where the electrons are picked up by Oxygen to make H20./ Stage 5- ATP Synthesis= After the intermembrane space is filled with H+ ions there is only one way for the H+ ions to go and thats through the ATP Synthase down their concentration gradient. This produces ADP and P to create ATP. |
| What two stages in aerobic metabolism have C02 as a byproduct?/ What stage produces H20? | Pyruvate Oxidation and Krebs cycle./ ETC. |
| What is the cycle called, where Fatty acids are broken down?/ Where does this occur? | Beta-Oxidation/ Within Mitochondria. |
| T/F.? Fatty Acids require O2 for metabolism? | True. |
| What takes place within the Matrix of mitochondria? | Krebs Cycle. |
| Name two similarities about aerobic and anaerobic respiration. | 1.) Both generate energy by breaking down Glucose through "Glycolysis" / 2.) Both depend on enzymes to function. |
| What is used to bind an Amino Acid to its appropriate tRNA? | Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase |
| T/F..? All three forms of RNA are used within the Ribosome. | True |
| Where are Integral membrane proteins produced? What is there purpose? | In the Rough ER/ To stabilize hydrophobic regions. |
| What accounts for 30% of our resting energy use? | Na+/K+ Pump |
| What happens to the candy bar that you ate for lunch? | Gets diffused across plasma membrane through facilitated diffusion. Then from here it goes through Glycolysis in the Cytosol and eventually produces ATP in Mitochondria. |
| What is the fastest form of intercellular communication? | AP's |
| How can a "signal" pass from one cell to another without any molecular movement across the membrane? | A Hormone does this. (Mainly with receptors coupled with G-proteins.) |
| Where is Epinephrine Secreted from in the body? | Adrenal Glands, above the kidneys. |
| T/F..? Epinephrine binding to B-Adrenergic receptors on skeletal muscle will increase the amount of free glucose.? | True. |
| What does a Ribosome consist of? | Made of 50 different proteins and rRNA. |
| The Amino acid string coming from the Ribosome requires what? | 4ATP per Amino ACID. |
| Where are Neurotransmitters made and stored? | The Synaptic Bulb. |
| Explain the pre and post ganglionic fibers within the PNS./ What about the SNS? | At the Preganglionic and Postganglionic synapse, the receptor is "Nicotinic"/ Whereas the Postganglionic synapse contains a Muscarinic Receptor (G-protein), which signals K+ channels to open and K+ flows out, making the inside of the cell more negative than normal= hyper polarization./ In the SNS, the synapse between the Pre and Post ganglion ALSO HAS ACh released onto MUSCARINIC Receptors! BUT, at the end of the Post ganglionic fiber, "Norepinephrine" is released onto ADRENERGIC Receptors! |
| Name 4 physiological responses that occur to the body in the diving reflex. | Apnea, Bradycardia, Hyper-profusion, and reduced metabolic demand. |
