| A | B |
|---|
| When you haven't eaten for a couple of hours and your blood glucose levels drop (low), what happens within your body? | If we haven't eaten for several hours, our blood glucose levels decline. This decrease in blood glucose stimulates the alpha cells of the pancreas to release the hormone glucagon. Glucagon stimulates glycogenolysis within the LIVER, the breakdown of glycogen, to yield glucose. The glucose is released from the LIVER into the bloodstream, raising the levels of glucose back to normal. |
| What happens to glucose when it is not being used for energy? | Glucose gets stored in muscle cells and the liver. When these storages are full, glucose then gets stored as fat. |
| What is a special paracrine that is secreted by a neuron? | A Neurotransmitter. |
| Give an example of an Antagonistic Effect that occurs within the CNS? | NE and ACh binding on the heart. |
| What is Catabolism? | The breaking down of larger molecules into smaller ones, with the aid of enzymes. |
| What is Anabolism? (Give an example) | The building of smaller molecules by enzymes into larger molecules./ (Amino acids-into- Proteins.) |
| What branches does Metabolism consist of? | Catabolism and Anabolism. |
| Name the most important hormone associated with maintaining metabolism and body heat./ What organ Secretes it? And what is its "Target Tissue"? | Thyroxine./ The Thyroid Gland/ Target= All body cells. |
| Explain the process in which the body regulates metabolic rate... | The Thyroid gland secretes Thyroxine, which increases metabolic rate. Also the Pituitary Gland secretes (TSH) Thyroid Stimulating Hormone which enters the blood stream to the Thyroid gland and stimulates it to "produce" more Thyroxine! |
| What is the target tissue for Estrogen?/ What is its specific action? | The Uterus./ It stimulates the endometrium of the Uterus to grow/develop. |
| What is the target tissue for TSH?/ What is it secreted by?/ What is its specific action? | The Thyroid Gland./ The Pituitary Gland./ To stimulate the Thyroid gland to produce more Thyroxine. |
| What is the target tissue for Insulin? What secretes it? And what is its specific action? | Skeletal Muscles and Liver Cells/ Secreted by the Pancreas/ Regulates blood glucose levels by enabling cells to absorb glucose. |
| What is the target tissue for (FSH) Follicle Stimulating Hormone?/ What secretes it?/ and Whats its specific action? | Ovaries/ Anterior Pituitary Gland/Stimulates Ovarian follicle growth. |
| Why didn't the administration of "Propylthiouracil" have any effect on the metabolic rat of either the throidectomized rat or hypophysectomized rat? | 1st- Propylthiouracil inhibits the production of Thyroxine! P2nd-Because on rat had its thyroid gland removed and the hypophysectomized rat had its pituitary gland removed, So there is no glands to be Inhibited- resulting in no effect on either rat. |
| What important hormone was removed with the ovariectomies rats? | Estradiol. |
| What is the difference between Type I and Type II Diabetes?/ Name one Similarity between the two. | Type I- When Insulin is not produced by the Pancreas./ Type II- When Insulin IS Produced by the Pancreas, but is not "sensed" by the body./ Similarity= Both enable Glucose to be left in the bloodstream, not being allowed to be taken up by the body for energy!!!! |
| What Organ produces Insulin? | The Pancreas. |
| Why is a Glucose standard curve needed for the insulin and diabetes experiment? | Needed to compare the results of the amount of Glucose in the samples to the Unknowns. (Optical Density vs. Glucose) |
| What is optical density? | The amount of light absorbed, which is used for a measurement of the substance in the sample. |
| What does Alloxan do? | It selectively kills all the *Beta Cells within the Pancreas, which are responsible for Insulin production*, creating the injector to become diabetic immediately. |
| Name the condition in which Insulin is Not produced by the Pancreas. | Type I diabetes. |
| Name the condition in which Insulin is produced by the Pancreas, but not recognized by the body.. | Type II diabetes. |
| Which type of Diabetes is the rarest? What type of disease is it? | Type I/ Autoimmune disease. |
| What is the sum of all biochemical reactions in the body? | Metabolism |
| Does Anabolism and Catabolism require ATP? | Yes. |
| What is Hyperthyroidism?/ Whats another name for it? | It is excessive energy because of too much thyroxine. /Graves disease. |
| What is Hypothyroidism? Whats another name for it? | It is when your thyroid is not producing enough Thyroxine, leaving you very tired./Hashimotos disease. |
| What is known as the hypophysis? | The Pituitary gland. |
| When Insulin travels to the cells of the body, the concentration of ___________ elevates within the cells?/ What is the specific action of this? | Glucose/ To make Glycogen, which then creates energy. |
| What is TSH? What organ of the body secretes it? What is its target tissue and specific action? | Thyroid Stimulating Hormone/ The Anterior Pituitary gland/ Target=Thyroid.... Action= To produce Thyroxine. |
| What does ELISA stand for? What is it used for? And how? | Enzyme linked immunosorbent assay/ It is used to determine if you have been exposed to a contagious disease./ It uses "Antibodies" to detect the presence of a disease "Agent".(Agent=Antigen=virus) |
| T/F.? Antibodies are Proteins and are very specialized for 1 specific antigen. | True |
| Antibodies make up ____% of your total blood serum protein. | 15% |
| In an Immunoassay, the antibodies used to recognize antigens like disease agents are called _________________. | Primary Antibodies. |
| In regards to the immune system, what is the difference between Innate and Acquired? | Innate- (Physical Barriers) skin, mucous membranes, stomach acid, saliva and ear wax./ Acquired- Antibodies and Antigens. |
| Name some ways in which diseases spread. | Physical contact, Airborne, Contaminated food or water, and Vectors. |
| Name three problems that can prevent the immune system from working properly? | Hypersensitivity, Immunodeficiency, and Autoimmune. |
| The enzyme used in the ELISA lab was called _______________________./ This enzyme is used as a _________________. | Horseradish Peroxidase/ Reporter assay. |
| Name three different white blood cells./ Which of these three make B and T cells? | Neutrophils, Macrophages, and Lymphocytes- these make the B and T cells. |
| What are the light sensitive cells in the retina of the eye?/ Which of these allow perception of color and which allows perception of objects? | Rods and Cones./ Cones= color and Rods= objects. |
| When images of distant objects are focused at a point anterior to the retina a person is said to be ___________./ Which is also known as___________. | Nearsighted/ Myopia. |
| When someone can focus on near objects but not distant ones, they are said to be ________________. | Nearsighted (Myopia). |
| What is the name for someone who cannot focus on near objects, but can focus on distant objects? | Farsighted (Hyperopia). |
| To focus on a "Near" object he muscle fibers of the ciliary body of the eye must contract and this causes the lens of the eye to bend (become more spherical). This is known as___________________. | Accommodation. |
| There is a 'Point" where an object is really close to the eyes that accommodation can no longer produce clarity of focus. This is known as ________________. | The Near Point of vision. |
| The loss of near vision due to progressive loss of elasticity of the lens, is known as _______________. | Presbyopia. |
| What is the difference between Presbyopia and Hyperopia? | Presbyopia- is when the the lens loses its elasticity/ Hyperopia is when light is not refracted correctly. |
| What parts of the eye are involved in the refraction of light rays? | The Cornea and the Lens. |
| A condition in which the irregularity of the curvature of the cornea cause light rays to be bent more than other rays. This is known as ________________. | Astigmatism. |
| A reflex adjustment of the position of the eyes, so that the images formed in them continually fall on corresponding points of the retina. This is known as _______________. | Convergence Reflex. |
| When looking directly at an object, the image of the object being viewed is formed on the ___________ of the retina. Which is an area that contains a higher concentration of ________ cells and provides particularly acute vision. | Central Fovea/ Cone Cells |
| The ________ is where the Optic nerve exits the eye. This area creates a ______________. | Optic disk/ Blind spot. |
| What part of the brain is most responsible for receiving impulses that are due to sensory touch? | The parietal lobe. |
| Name 6 major Endocrine Glands. | Pancreas, Ant. and Post. Pituitary glands, Adrenal Gland, Thyroid gland, Parathyroid gland, and Pineal gland. |
| Name 6 functional classifications of Chemical messengers. | Paracrines, Autocrines, Cytokines, Neurotransmitters, Hormones, and Neurohormones. |
| What kind of chemical messenger has sensory of itself? Give an example. | Autocrines/ A negative feedback loop. |
| What kind of chemical messenger acts on close target cells? Give an example. | Paracrines/ the release of a neurotransmitter onto synapse. |
| What kind of chemical messenger acts on distant targets in high levels? Give an example. | Cytokines/ Histamine |
| What kind of chemical messenger is released by a neurosecretory cell? | A neurohormone. |
| What is referred to as the chemical composition of a messenger or hormone?/ What does the chemical composition affect? | Whether it is Hydrophilic or Hydrophobic./ Secretion, Transportation, and Target Organ response type. |
| Name the mechanisms used to secrete and transport Hydrophilic (non-polar) molecules and Hydrophobic (polar) molecules. And give examples of each. | Hydrophilic Molecules- (ex-Epinephrine, NE, ACh, GABA) Secreted by Exocytosis and Transported by freely dissolving into the blood./ Hydrophobic- (ex- Glucose/hormones-Cortisol) Secreted by Simple Diffusion and Transported by protein carriers in the blood. |
| When a molecule is Polar, what does it mean? | That it is Hydrophobic/ Water fearing. |
| Name 2 lipid soluble hormone types and whether they are long lived or short lived./ Give an example. | Steroid and Thyroid hormones/ They are Long lived./ Directly effecting Transcription. |
| What type of hormone usually has more than one 2nd messenger, uses amplification, and is short lived (rapid)? | Lipid "Insoluble" hormones. |
| What is the difference between an Endocrine gland and a Exocrine gland?/ And which Organ functions with both of these mechanisms? | Endocrine glands secrete hormones, which are chemical "messengers" that travel through the blood to regulate the activity of a target organ. Glands that have ducts are called exocrine glands. The secretions of exocrine glands reach their target by traveling through a duct (tube)./ The Pancreas. |
| Within the Pancreas what helps regulate blood glucose levels?/ What secretes them within the Pancreas? And what is there specific action? | Insulin- Secreted by Beta Cells to "Lower" blood glucose levels./ Glucagon- Secreted by Alpha cells to Increase blood glucose levels. |
| What two hormones help regulate the ratio of Anabolism and Catabolism? | Insulin and Glucagon. |
| In what forms does the body store fuel (energy)? | Glycogen, Proteins, and adipose tissue (fat). |
| When you are fasting what is the target tissue for Glucagon?/ What secrets it? | The Liver/ The Pancreas. |
| What regulates the release of Glucose from glycogen store within the Liver? | Glucagon!! |
| Is insulin Lipid soluble or Lipid Insoluble? | Lipid Insoluble/ Needs exocytosis. . |
| T/F.? Glucagon works via a 2nd messenger./ What is the 2nd messenger?/ What also works via the SAME 2nd messenger?/ What secretes this? | True/ c-AMP/ Epinephrine/ The Adrenal Medulla!! |
| What within the body uses "Amplification"? | The raising of blood glucose levels from Glucagon or Epinephrine. to create 10,000 glucose molecules! |
| What do the Beta cells of the Pancreas secrete? | Insulin. |
| T/F.? Insulin functions as its own negative feedback mechanism. | True |
| Name some things that Insulin does, besides regulating blood glucose levels. | Inhibits Lipolysis (break down of lipids), reduces fatty acid levels in circulation, stimulates protein synthesis, and acts as a satiety center in the Hypothalamus. |
| Name three parts within the body that Insulin acts on. | Liver, Adipose tissue, and skeletal muscles. |
| When Insulin is released from the Pancreas and then stimulates skeletal muscles and the Liver, glucose enters and is stored as what? | Glycogen. |
| What type of diabetes has 5% of its Pancreatic Beta cells destroyed? | Type I |
| What gives 3x the rise in coronary heart disease and stroke? | Metabolic syndrome- central obesity, low HDL levels, diabetes, elevated triglycerides, and hypertension. |
| What are the master glands? | The pituitary glands. |
| Name the true endocrine gland of epithelial cell origin./ What is another name for it? | The Anterior Pituitary gland./ The Adenohypophysis. |
| Which gland in the body contains neural tissue from the hypothalamus?/ Whats another name for it? | The Posterior Pituitary gland./ Neurohypophysis. |
| What does the Pancreas secrete?/ What is the target tissue for these secretions? | Glucagon (alpha cells) and Insulin (Beta Cells)/ The Liver- which either secretes Glucose or Absorbs glucose. |
| What gland is Cortisol released from?/ What is Cortisol and what is its Target Tissue? | The Adrenal Cortex./ Cortisol- the stress hormone (a Glucocorticoid). Target Tissues= Liver, Brain, and Immune System. |
| What gland is Aldosterone secreted by?/ What is its function and Target tissue? | The Adrenal Cortex/ Functions to retain Na+ and Water in the Kidneys and release K+... Helps regulate blood volume as well./ Target Tissue= Kindeys. |
| T/F.? Aldosterone is a mineral-cortcoid. | True. |
| Where is Epinephrine secreted from? | The Adrenal Medulla. |
| Explain how the Adrenal Cortex works. | The Hypothalamus secretes (CRH) Cortioctropic Releasing Hormone, which then stimulates the Anterior Pituitary Gland to Secrete (ACTH) Adrenocorticotropic Hormone, which then stimulates the Adrenal Cortex to release Cortisol, where Cortisol then acts on the Liver and Brain.--- Once there is enough Cortisol in the body, it acts as a Negative feedback loop by inhibiting the Anterior Pituitary gland and Hypothalamus from releasing their specific hormones. |
| What is a "Tropic" Hormone?/ What are some examples of them and where the come from? | A hormone that acts on another "Endocrine Gland"/ Corticotropic Releasing Hormone (CRH)- comes from the Hypothalamus AND Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) comes from the Anterior Pituitary Gland. |
| Is Thyroxine a Tropic Hormone? If so, how? | Yes/ Because it is secreted by the thyroid to act on the Hypothalamus. |
| What is a "Trophic" hormone?/ Give an example. | A hormone that increases target cell growth/ Ex- (TSH) Thyroid Stimulating Hormone.- secreted by the Ant. Pituitary gland to stimulate the Thyroid to produce more Thyroxine. |
| What does the Posterior Pituitary gland secrete?/ What are these hormones functions and what kind of hormones are they? | (ADH) Anti-diruretic Hormone- Water Retention in the Kidneys AND Oxytocin- Uterine contractions/ (Both are Peptide Hormones). |
| What gland mainly secretes "Trophic" Hormones? | The Ant. Pituitary Gland. |
| The hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal system involves which glands in the body? | Hypothalamus and Anterior Pituitary Gland. |
| What is GHRH? What is its pathway in the body?/ What does the opposite effect of this Hormone? | (GHRH) Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone/ Secreted by the Hypothalamus to stimulate the Ant. Pit. Gland to release (GH) Growth Hormone on the Liver and Body Cells./ (GHIH) Growth Hormone Inhibiting Hormone. |
| Name 6 Anterior Pituitary "Tropic" Hormones. | Prolactin, TSH, ACTH, GH, LH and FSH. |
| Name 2 "Gonadotropins" that are released by the Anterior Pituitary Gland. | FSH (Follicle Stimulating Hormone) AND-- LH (Luteinizing Hormone) |
| What is Acromegaly?/ What hormone causes it? | Tallness and enlargement of the bones within the face and hands/ GH causes it. |
| What is Glycogenolysis? Where does it occur? | It is the break down of Glycogen to yield Glucose/ It occurs in the Liver. |
| What secretes Glucocorticoids and Mineral-corticoids?? Give examples of Each. | The Adrenal Cortex/ Glucocorticoid- Cortisol AND Mineral-corticod is Aldosterone. |
| What hormone blocks the immune system response, like itching from Histamine? | Cortisol |
| What part of the adrenal glands is innervated by nerves? | The Adrenal Medulla |
| Explain the Process in which Epinephrine works.. | Epinephrine is secreted by the Adrenal Medulla where it binds to adrenergic receptor sites on body tissues. This binding activates the release of ALPHA G-Proteins to bind to Adenylate Cyclase, which then takes ATP to stimulate cAMP to "ACTIVATE" Protein Kinase. |
| Explain how Caffeine effects the body... | Caffeine inhibits the break down of cAMP by blocking "Phosphodiesterase"... So this increases the Epinephrine response. |
| What breaks down cAMP? | Phosphodiesterase. (The "Off-switch" for Epinephrine) |
| What do Glucocorticoids do? Give an example of one. | Breakdown Glycogen in the Liver and also convert Non-carbs into Glucose/ Cortisol |
| What is Gluconeogenesis? What stimulates this process? | The breakdown of non-carbohydrates to produce Glucose/ Glucocorticoids like --Cortisol |
| Which Corticosteriod regulates ions?/ Which one increases blood Glucose levels? | Mineral-corticoids (Aldostersone)/ Glucocorticoids (Cortisol) |
| T/F..? High levels of Cortisol depress the immune system./ How else does stress affect cortisol release and function.? | True/ Down-regulation of inflammatory response, increased cardiac output, muscle proteolysis, and increased appetite. |
| What produces T3 and T4? What are they? | The Thyroid Gland/ T3- Triiodothyronine AND T4- Thyroxine. |
| Name 4 functions of the Thyroid Gland. | Heart Function, Heat regulation, Metabolism regulation, and Responsiveness to Epinephrine. |
| What gland is important for the development of the nervous system and growth/formation of synapse's and myelin? | The Thyroid Gland. |
| Explain what happens when you get cold.. | The Hypothalamus secretes (TRH) Thyrotropin-releasing hormone which then acts on the Anterior Pituitary gland to secrete (TSH) Thyroid Stimulating Hormone, which then acts on the Thyroid to produce T4 (Thyroxine) and T3 (Triiodothyronine) which both increase metabolic rate and heat production by muscles and other body cells. |
| The Tonic release of What Hormone increases Metabolic rate and Heat Production? | (TH) Thyroid Hormones (T3 and T4) |
| Give some facts about T3 and T4... | T4 has a longer 1/2 life and is more prominent in the blood, but needs blood transporters./ T3 is mostly produced in the tissues and is 3-5 time stronger than T4. |
| Name to things that are decreased by the actions of the thyroid. | Decreased glycogenesis (storage of glucose) AND Lipogenesis (Storage of triglycerides). |
| What disease occurs when the bodes immune system overstimulates the thyroid? | Graves Disease. |
| What Gastrointestinal Peptide hormone is released in response to a lack of food? (Hungry)/ From where is it released and what is its target tissue? | Ghrelin- which is made from the GI tract and secreted from the stomach and small intestines, to be sent to its target tissue-- the hypothalamus- which releases GH. |
| What Adipose tissue hormone is released in response to Satiety? (Fullness)/ What is its target tissue? | Leptin and sent to the hypothalamus. |
| What stimulates the small intestine to absorb Ca2+ and Phosphate? | Vitamin D |
| What do the Parathyroid glands do? | They regulate Ca2+ and Phosphate by releasing (PTH) Parathyroid Hormone and stimulating the Kidneys to reabsorb Ca2+ and stimulating bones to dissolute Calcium Phosphate into the blood-- Raising Ca2+ in the blood. |
| What is the primary regulator of Ca2+ within the blood? | (PTH) Parathyroid Hormone. |
| What converts Vitamin D from the Sun or through diet to be absorbed by the small intestine? | The Liver and Kidneys |
| What regulates Circadian rhythms?/ How is this done? | The (SCN) Suprachiasmatic nucleus./ Light inhibits the SCN from stimulating the Pineal Gland- which releases Melatonin. During the Night however, the SCN stimulates the Pineal Gland to secrete Melatonin- which makes you sleepy. |
| T/F.? 2nd Messenger systems are only found in the cells of endocrine glands. | True! |
| Explain how ADH regulates our fluid balance during bouts of dehydration and sleep... | The Hypothalamus is stimulated by an increase in Na+ blood concentration, which then stimulates the "Posterior Pituitary Gland" to secrete (ADH) Antidiuretic Hormone. ADH then enters the blood stream and binds to its receptor site one the kidneys. This binding causes GTP to activate proteins to break off and activate Adenylyl Cyclase, which then has ATP stimulate cAMP and then Protein Kinase. Then Protein Kinase stimulates to increase the number of Aquaporin Proteins in the collecting duct. Aldosterone reabsorbs Na+ and so water follows it back into the Extracellular(Intracellular) fluid. |
| Explain how Angiotensin II works... | 1st RENIN is secreted from the Kindeys to form Angiotensinogen, which is then converted into Angiotensin I. In the Lungs Angiotensin I is converted into Angiotensin II by (ACE). Angiotensin II then targets the Cardiovascular system and Kidneys. In the CVS it causes Vasoconstriction- which increases blood pressure/ AND in the Kidney's it stimulates the Adrenal Cortex to secrete "Aldosterone" which then reabsorbs Na+ and Water, which Also Increases Blood Pressure!!!!! |
| Where is GH produced? | Ant. Pituitary gland. |
| How does GH promote Glucose availability? | It promotes Protein synthesis in muscles, but inhibits Glucose uptake. Glucose uptake is also inhibited In Adipose Tissue by becoming insensitive to Insulin receptors. This leaves Glucose in the blood to be available for energy. |
| T/F.? Episodes of starvation and exercise, which tend to reduce blood glucose levels, will stimulate the release of GH. Allowing for more availability of Glucose. | True |
| T/F..? GH and Cortisol are Antagonistic to each other in skeletal muscles. | True/ GH conserves Amino Acids in skeletal muscles and Cortisol promotes muscle breakdown (proteolysis). |
| T/F.? GH can be stimulated to be released by two hormones./ If so, which ones? | True/ Ghrelin and GHRH |
| When is Aldosterone released?/ And by what gland? | When K+ concentrations are high, meaning your dehydrated./ Released by the Adrenal Cortex. |
| T/F.? An Increase in extracellular K+ depolarizes the membrane potential of Cortical cells within the Adrenal Cortex, stimulating the opening of Ca2+ channels-- causing the release of Aldosterone into the bloodstream. Where it then reaches its target tissue- the distal rubles of the Kidneys. | TRUE!!! |
| Explain the difference between the pre-diabetic and Type 2 (most severe) Diabetic, based upon the Glucose Tolerance test graph. | The Pre-diabetic has High Insulin levels but low Glucose levels/ Where the Type 2 diabetic- has High Glucose levels and Low Insulin levels. |
| Which Corticosteroids increase Blood Glucose levels? | Glucocorticoids, like Cortisol. |
| Why is it important to wean off of a hormonal supplement like (Prednisone)? | Because when you are taking in an extra amount of a hormone that mimics Cortisol, your body sends its negative feedback mechanism to the An. Pituitary (ACTH) and Hypothalamus (CRH) to stop secreting their hormones.. so when you stop cold turkey, your body doesn't have enough time to receiver from the high amount of hormones that you were previously digesting. |
| What disease does the drug Propylthiouricil mimic?/ Can this cause a goiter?, how? | Hypothyroidism (Hashimoto's disease)./ Yes, by the immune cells attacking healthy thyroid tissue (causing a goiter). |
| What hormone is made in adipose tissue? | Leptin |
| T/F.? The release of Aldosterone is stimulated by the Anterior Pituitary Gland./ If not, then how is it released? | False/ released from the adrenal cortex by the stimulation of increased K+ levels in the blood. |
| Where is Renin released from? | JG cells (Juxtaglomerular cells) |
| What hormone indirectly regulates water balance? Why is it called indirectly? | Aldosterone, because it mainly regulates Na+ and K+, whereas Water just follows through Osmosis. |
| Some Macrophages arise from Leukocytes called________. | Monocytes |
| What are the most common type of Leukocytes? | Neutrophils |
| Name 4 types of Leukocytes and give | Neutrophils and Monocytes (macrophages)- both use Phagocytosis(except Neutrophils also have granules)/ Basophils (histamine) and Eosinophils- both have granules of enzymes that destroy bacterias, (but both are lethal to normal cells). |
| What type of cell resides in bone marrow and releases non-cellular cytoplasmic fragments, known as platelets into the blood? | Non-Motile Megakaryocytes. |
| What Leukocytes have a slower but greater bacterial killing capacity, and use phagocytosis? | Monocytes |
| T/F.? The Lymphatic system is the highway for white blood cells and only uses Venous flow. | True and false/ It is the highway for white blood cells, but it ONLY Uses "Arterial Flow", not Veins. |
| Name three final components in the composition of blood and give their definitions. | Albumin- protein/ Globulin- Antibody/ Fibrinogen- blood clotting. |
| What do platelets release, to act as chemical messengers for platelet aggregation? | Ca2+ and ADP |
| When you cut yourself and begin to bleed what causes vasoconstriction and activates proteins that make the surface "sticky"? | Endothelin. |
| What is known as the convergence of extrinsic and intrinsic pathways that merge into a final common path? | coagulation |
| Name 4 symptoms that occur in response to local injury(inflammation)... | Redness- from vasodilation/ Swelling- from vasodilatation and increased vascular permeability/ Heat- from the increased blood flow to the area./ Pain- that comes from a result of the pressure from swelling. |
| What is Extravasation? | It is the given permeability of a phagocytic cell to travel into near by tissue to kill bacteria. |
| What is a Pyrogen? | Any substance or agent that induces a fever or increase body temperature. |
| How does local inflammation progress into systemic inflammation? | Tissue macrophages release-- Cytokines- (IL-1, IL-6, and TNF- a) that act as hormones and stimulate the Hypothalamus to release CRH that acts on the Ant. Pituitary gland to release ACTH, which then acts on the Adrenal Cortex to release Cortisol-- which then acts on the Liver to release C-reactive proteins(flag), Manose binding proteins(flags), and Fibrinogen (clotting). |
| In the Epidemiology lab, what was the difference between the (+) and (-) controls? | The (-) control had the antigen added to the micro-plate well but didn't have any antibody added, so it washed out/ The (+) controls contained the Antigen, so when the antibody was added it would bind to the antigen to flag it down for destruction ( so it did not wash out), so when the 2nd antibody was added it also bonded with its enzyme-- changing the color. |
| What is released from macrophages that helps a local inflammation progress into a systemic inflammation? | Cytokines. |
| Name 3 kinds of lymphatic cells../ State where they are produced and where they are stored. | (B-lymphocytes, T-lymphocytes, and NK cells) All are produced in the bone marrow, except ONLY B-cells and NK cells "mature" in the bone marrow, while T-cells mature within the Thymus gland. |
| What functions as Pyrogens within the body? | IL-1, IL-6, and TNF-a |
| T/F.? Helper T cells can activate B cells to produce Antibodies. | True |
| Name 4 types of T-lymphoctic cells. | NK cells, Cytotoxic cells, Helper T cells, and Regulatory T cells. |
| Which T-cells release "perforins" to kill target cells?/ Which of these kill "self" cells? | NK cells and Cytotoxic cells-- kill self cells. |
| Which type of Lymphatic cells create "memory" cells? | B-cells and Cytotoxic T-cells |
| What is known as a group of proteins that are used to communicate between Immune cells? | (MHC) Major Histocompatibility Complex. |
| In the innate Immune system monocytes, neutrophils and resident macrophages engulf (phagocytize) bacteria. Once they do this they "present" a portion of the bacterial protein on their plasma membrane. Once this occurs the __________ Immune system can use what........? | Adaptive/ It can THEN use Helper T-Cells to bind to the Antigen/MHC complex. Once they are bound to this they then release "Cytokines" that activate Cytotoxic T-cells and activate B-Cells which then B-cells create Memory Cells!! |
| T/F.? Histamine can function as a paracrine and as a cytokine. | True |
| What happens (process) when you have an allergy response in your body? | An Allergen binds to B-cells where it makes Plasma cells that secrete IgE Antibodies (Immunoglobulins), that act on Mast Cells, which then release Histamine-- giving you an allergy response. |
| What is the difference between a primary and secondary response? | Primary response- allow you to mount a primary response to a deactivated antigen (shot)/ Secondary response- when you are really exposed to the real antigen you have built up enough antigens and memory B-cells to combat the pathogen before it makes you ill. |
| What are used as communication molecules between white blood cells? | Interluekins. |
| Why wouldn't an Antihistamine for Poison Oak work like it does for An Allergy? | When the body mounts an Allergic reaction it uses B-Cells to produce plasma cells, which release IgE antibodies that stimulate Mast cells to secrete Histamines. (Antihistamines block this process)/ BUT for Poison oak, this is a delayed hypersensitivity response, that uses a T-cell response. (have to use a corticosteroid) |
| What activates B Cells to produce plasma cells and memory B cells? | Helper T-Cells with an MHC protein. |
| What type of cells bind to antigens/MHC complexes and release cytokines that activate Cytotoxic T cells? | Helper T cells! |
