| A | B |
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| What does Daltons Law say about partial pressures? | With increased elevation, partial pressures go down. |
| Is the partial pressure of oxygen higher in the lungs or blood? | Lungs |
| What does Henry's Law tell you about how O2 travels in the blood? | If the partial pressure of O2 is lower in the atmosphere, then it reduces O2 levels in the blood as well, lowering hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen. |
| What is known as hemoglobin's certain affinity for O2? | The Bohr Effect |
| What is the atom at the center of a heme group that holds O2?. How many oxygen molecules can 1 hemoglobin carry? | Iron (Fe)/ 4 |
| How does a change in blood pH effect oxygen affinity? | A drop in pH (acidic) decreases oxygen's binding affinity to hemoglobin. |
| What is the partial pressure of veins at rest? | 40 mmHg |
| Name 3 ways in which Co2 is transported in the blood. Give percentages of Co2 that are carried. | 1. Dissolved in the plasma (10%) 2. 20% bound to hemoglobin. 3. 70% from HCO-3 (Bicarbonate Ion). |
| What is the Chloride shift? | An exchange of chloride and bicarbonate ion across RBC membranes, it uses 2ndary Active Transport and this process maintains blood pH. |
| How are blood Co2 levels and blood pH related? | The bicarbonate reaction and the chloride shift balance blood pH by taking Co2 out and putting bicarbonate in (basic). |
| What is the main stimulus that causes us to take a breath? | Partial pressures of Co2 |
| What is the effect of Hyperventilation and Hypoventilation on CO2 blood levels? How is this related to pH?/ What about Oxygen levels in the blood? | Hyperventilation= Low CO2 levels AND Hypoventilation= High CO2 levels.? pH will follow CO2, ex- hyperventilation= high pH (less acidic)// Oxygen levels will stay the same during hyperventilation and drop slightly during hypo-ventilation. |
| Explain how ventilation is regulated by the central and peripheral pathways.? | Central Pathway (Blood brain barrier)- CO2 enters through the blood brain barrier, and then goes through the bicarbonate reaction, which changes (decreases) pH. The change in pH is sensed by an increase in H+ ions by the medulla oblongata, which then tells the respiratory center to increase ventilation, to remove the excess CO2! //Peripheral Pathway (chemo-receptors)= CO2 is goes through the bicarbonate reaction, which changes blood pH, (H+) is then sensed by chemorecptors on the aortic arch and carotid sinus, which then stimulated the respiratory center in the medulla oblangata to either increase or decrease ventilation./ |
| Name two ways in which blood pH is regulated? | The Kidneys ability to remove excess H+ ions/ Ventilation from lungs that allow for CO2 regulation of H+ and HCO3- |
| What is metabolic acidosis? | The build up of free hydrogen ions in the blood from kidney failure of excreting them. |
| What is respiratory acidosis? | Acidosis that results from failure of the lungs to eliminate CO2 as fast as it is produced. |
| Does hyperventilation cause acidosis or alkalosis? Why? | Alkalosis, because your rapid breathing expels too much CO2 and makes your blood higher in pH (basic). |
| In metabolic acidosis, hydrogen secretion into the renal filtrate will __________. While bicarbonate re-absorption from the renal filtrate will _______________. | Increase/ Decrease. |
| What breathing mechanism should be used to counteract Respiratory Acidosis? | Hyperventilation, too remove excess CO2! |
| If someone has respiratory alkalosis, what can they do to combat the disease? | Hypo-ventilate, breath into a paper bag to get more CO2 back into the body! |
| What are the 2 primary functions of the urinary system? | Excretion and Regulation. |
| Name 2 things that the urinary system excretes? AND 4 things that it regulates.? | Urea and Water/ Calcium, Sodium, Potassium, and bicorbonate and hydrogen ions. |
| Name the 4 organs in the urinary system starting with the one where urine is first produced. | Kidneys, Uterers, Bladder, and Urethra. |
| What is the smallest functional subunit of the kidneys? | The Nephron. |
| Name the tubules of the kidney through which urine must pass. | Glomerular capsule, PCT, Loop of Henle, DCT, Collecting Duct, and then Renal Pelvis, then Uterers. |
| Where in the kidney's nephron does filtration occur? | Renal Corpuscle. |
| Name three main portal systems within the body. | Hypothalamic hypophoseal portal system, hepatic portal system, and portal system with the glomerular capillary bed of kidneys. |
| What are the names of the blood vessels going into and out of the Glomerulus? | Afferent arteriole- going into the glomerulus/ Efferent arteriole- going away from glomerulus. |
| Compare/Contrast the structure and function of the two capillary beds in the kidneys. | Glomerulus capillaries- where "filtration" occurs. Has podocytes surrounding capillaries with fenestration's. / Peritubular capillaries- is where reabsorption of nutrients occurs. |
| Name the three layers of the glomerulus filter..? | 1. Capillary Fenestrations/ 2. Basement membrane/ 3. Podocyte filtration slits. |
| What molecule is "reabsorbed" in the PCT by secondary active transport?/ Primary Active transport? /Facilitated diffusion? | Sodium/ Potassium/ Glucose |
| Name three processes/mechanisms that the kidneys use daily...? | Filtration, Re-absorption, ad secretion. |
| Name three functions of the loop of henle./ How are the ascending and descending limbs different? | Reabsorbs NaCl, Creates concentration gradient, and reabsorbs many other ions (calcium, potassium, and magnesium)// Ascending Limb- Water "Impermeable" and the Descending Limb- Water Permeable. |
| Name the areas within the Loop of Henle that are Isosmotic, hyper-osmotic and hypo-osmotic..../ How does the filtrate volume change as it goes through the Loop? | Isosmotic= PCT, Hyperosmotic= Descending Limb, Hypoosmotic= Ascending Limb.// The filtrate volume changes from isosmotic to hyperosmotic in the descending limb to the bottom of the loop and this is due to the water permeability of this section. The ascending loop is less hypoosmotic because of its water "impermeability". |
| __________________ is known as, a system in the renal medulla that facilitates concentration of the urine as it passes through the renal tubules. | Countercurrent multiplier system. |
| What is a normal value for blood osmolarity? | 300 mOsm |
| T/F.? Blood pressure is highly variable, but GFR is not. | True |
| What is the zone of autoregulation?/ How is GFR changed then if BP does not change it? | The zone where GFR does not change (180L/day) as long as BP stay between 80-180 mmHg./ GFR changes through Afferent and Efferent Arteriole diameters. |
| AS BP Increases, Renal Blood flow _________. | Decreases. |
| T/F.? Autoregulation is controlled by hormones? | False, controlled by (myogenic) muscles. |
| A drop in BP would cause what to happen to renal arterioles? | Afferent arterioles would dilate and Efferent arterioles would constrict, due to renin-angiotensin system. |
| What does Adenosine do to afferent arterioles?/ What cells sense Na+ moving to quickly through GFR and release Adenosine? | Constricts them./ Macula Densa cells |
| The tubuloglomerular feedback refers to what? | An increase in NaCl is sensed by the macula densa cells of the DCT, this causes the release of Adenosine which constricts the afferent arteriole, reducing GFR. |
| Where is Aldosterone secreted and why? What ion is reabsobed by increased levels of aldosterone? | Adrenal Cortex, because of decreased BP/ Sodium (Na+) is reabsorbed. |
| What two ions are absorbed by the distal convoluted tubule (DCT))? | Potassium and Hydrogen. |
| What stimulates hydrogen ion secretion in the DCT? | Aldosterone |
| What 2 important cell types are within the DCT? | Juxtaglomerlusr cells and Macula densa cells. |
| What does Carbonic anyhydrase do? | An enzyme that aids in the conversion of CO2 to carbonic acid (H2CO3) and bicarbonate ion (HCO3-). |
| A ___________ in GFR is seen by a constriction of afferent arterioles. | decrease |
| A ___________ in GFR is seen by a constriction of efferent arterioles. | increase |
| An increase in BP creates a ____________ in GFR. | Increase. |
| A decease in BP creates a _______________ in GFR. | Decrease. |
| ____________ is known as, an increase in glucose in the urine. | Glucosuria. |
| Describe the role of ADH in urine production when your dehydrated (blood volume is down)... | If your dehydrated then your blood volume is down, which means that your blood osmolarity is high!.. This is sensed by chemoreceptors in the hypothalamus. This causes the release of ADH from the Posterior Pituitary gland. ADH increases the levels of aquaporin in the collecting duct. Causes the kidneys to retain water!!! This increases Blood volume and Decreases blood Osmolarity. |
| List 5 factors to an increase in the probability of getting Kidney Stones... | Male, Diet, Medications, hyper-parathyroidism, and Chronic UTI's. |
| A hard mass of calcium oxalate is known as ______________. | Kidney stones. |
| What disease occurs if ADH is blocked? What are some symptoms? | Diabetes Insipidus/ Excessive thirst, Urine Volume, and Urination. |
| Name the 4 methods for treatment of Kidney stones. | 1. Increase H2O intake. 2. Lithotripsy- uses shock-waves to break up stones. 3. Utereroscopy- camera and claw removal. 4. percutaneous nephrolithotomy- surgical removal through back. |
| What does the Inulin test tell you? | The amount of plasma filtered per unit time. Can tell you the health of your kidneys Nephrons. |
| If you used Glucose instead of Inulin in the Test, would you get the same Plasma "Clearance Rate"? Why or why not? | No, because Glucose is reabsorbed and has a clearance rate of Zero. |
| What substance has a higher clearance rate than GFR?/ What substance has a clearance rate that is lower than GFR?/ What substance has a clearance rate that is Equal to GFR? | Penicillin./ Glucose/ Inulin. |
| What triggers the Mitcturation reflex? What are the 3 muscles involved in the reflex AND state whether they are smooth or skeletal muscle AND whether they are voluntary or involuntary. | Urine fills the bladder and Stretch receptors of the Detrusor muscle sends AP's to Brain. The P.N.S. is activated and causes the contraction of the bladder and relaxation of the Upper Urethral sphincter./ Bladders Detrusor muscle (smooth muscle)(Involuntary), Upper Urethral Sphincter (smooth)(Involuntary), and Lower Urethral Sphincter (skeletal muscle)(Voluntary). |
| What is a normal percentage for reabsoprtion of water?/ What would it mean if the reabsorption percentage was 94%? | 99.1%/ It would mean that you are peeing too much! |
| Which treatment group had the most ADH secretion And How do you know this?/ Which group had the least amount of ADH produced? | The group that drank 80ml of water and 7.15 g of NaCl, I know this because they had the lowest PR and highest Osmolarity./ The group that drank 800ml of water, because they had the highest PR and lowest osmolarity. |
| What is the difference between isotonic and isometric contraction?/ What is the difference between concentric and eccentric contractions? | Isotonic- muscle contracts and shortens/ Isometric- Muscle contracts and does not shorten.// Concentric- muscle shortens And Eccentric- the muscle lengthens. |
| Name 3 types of skeletal muscle and give 3 distinguishing characteristics. | 1. Slow Oxidative- Has many Mitochondria, contraction velocity is slow, and rate of fatigue is slow/ 2. Fast Oxidative- Has many mitochondria, Contraction velocity is fast, and Rate of fatigue is intermediate./ 3. Fast Glycolytic- Has few Mitochondria, Contraction velocity is fast, and Rate of fatigue is fast. |
| List 4 changes to Slow twitch Oxidative muscle that occur over time from training. (What is this process called?) | 1. Oxidative/Glycolytic Enzymes increase./ 2. Myoglobin proteins increase./ 3. Muscle becomes more efficient at ATP production./ 4. Mitochondria Increase. (Tissue Adaptation). |
| Which type of muscle fibers are white? What makes them white? | Fast Glycolytic muscle fibers/ What makes them white is that they do not have that much Myoglobin. |
| What happens to the skeletal muscles that expand your chest wall?/ What effects do these changes have on respiration capacity? | They increase in size and strength/ They increase pulmonary ventilation, increase vital capacity, increase lung volume, decrease breathing rate, and increase VO2 Max. |
| What is VO2 max? What is the units for it? | The amount of O2 that can be taken IN and used./ (L/min.) |
| What is glycogenolysis? When and where does it occur? | The creation of Glucose from glycogen stores in skeletal muscle when working out. |
| Name 4 Hormones in the body that help it deal with the demands of training for running marathon, And state what each Hormone does. | 1. Insulin- decreases from epinephrine inhibiting it./ 2. Glucagon- Increases blood glucose levels./ 3. Epinephrine- binds to pancreas and inhibits the release of insulin AND promotes the release of Glucagon from alpha cells.. It also binds to skeletal muscle to promote glycogenolysis./ 4. Cortisol- decreases glucose uptake by blocking GLUT4, increases muscle proteolysis, Upregulates Gluconeogenesis in Liver, and potentates EPi action of promoting lipolysis. |
| List 3 things that change in the heart cell from training. | 1. Increased Sacromeric proteins./ 2. More cross bridge cycles improve heart contractility, SV and CO./ 3. Mitochondria become more efficient at ATP production. |
| Name some changes in vasculature that occurs from training. | Increased CO, Increased Arterial pressure (NO), Epinephrine relaxes smooth vessel muscle, Increased number of capillaries. (Angiogenesis). |
| What causes pre capillary sphincters to relax? | NO |
| Describe what happens to the body in anticipation of the big race day? | NE increases HR., increase in Ca2+ channels= an increase in contractility and SV, "Venoconstriction"- increases venous return and CO. |
| During the race, how is lactic acid used that is produced by the working muscles? | Lactic acid is used by the heart to produce ATP through Citric Acid Cycle! |
| What hormone obstructs both renal arterioles?. | Angiotensin II |
| How is GFR affected by the S.N.S. during the race?/ How do these processes effect respiration? | GFR is decreased by constriction of renal arterioles., which results in a decrease in urine production./ The kidneys are not filtering out H+, so you must breathe more in order to remove H+ ions. |
| Why is drinking a lot of water a bad strategy for hydrating?/ What is a better strategy for hydrating? | Because it reduces blood osmolarity and inhibits the release of ADH- creating water loss through urination./ Drinking water with Na+, which increases blood volume WITHOUT increasing urinary water loss. |
| What happens to normal GI motility from epinephrine stimulation on race day?/ Why is it that some people need to go to the bathroom during the race? | Decreased GI motility.// Pacemaker cells can be stimulated by physical jostling that stimulates intestinal contractions. |
| What is the relation ship between strenuous exercise and the immune system? | After exercise cells are damaged and Nuetrophils, Machrophages, and Monocytes engulf damaged bacteria through "Autophagy", They are released from bone marrow.... Also Satellite cells help to rebuild muscles. |
| What does sweating do? | Promotes evaporative cooling and causes vasodilatation of skin vessels. |
| T/F.? Training increases speed and quantity of sweat.? | True |
| Sweating is triggered by the ___________ nervous system. | Sympathetic. |
| Muscle cells are organized into bundles surrounded by a connective sheath ending in a ____________. | Tendon. |
| T./F.? While running, you breathe deeply, which causes: a slight decrease in lung temperature and an increase in O2 binding to hemoglobin within the lung. | True. |
| In males during arousal, the _________________ nervous system releases ___________, which regulates ____________________. | Parasympathetic/ NO/ Vascular Diameter. |
| Orgasm releases ___________ from the _____________ gland. | Oxytocin/ Posterior Pituitary. |
| What is the purpose of the Male epididymis? | Storage for sperm (not mobile). |
| What is the purpose of the seminal vesicle? | Stores seminal fluid and constitues 50-70% of semen. |
| What part of the male reproductive system contains 30% of seminal fluid? | Prostate Gland |
| What is gametogenesis? | The creation of Gametes (sperm and ovum) |
| What part of the male reproductive system contains sticky protein mucous? | Bulbourethral glands. |
| Which gland contributes an alkaline solution for the utereus? | Prostate Gland. |
| Where does ova production occur in the female? | Ovaries. |
| What does viagra do in the male? | Blocks Phosphodiesterase- which breaks down cGMP. |
| What is Coitus? | Sexual intercourse. |
| In a Primary _________ a Primary _________ is surrounded by ________ cells. | Follicle/ Oocyte/ Granulosa. |
| Under the influence of local paracrines, ________ cells proliferate and form the _____________ around the oocyte. | Granulosa/ Zona Pellucida. |
| Ovarian connective tissue differentiates into ___________ cells, which converts the primary follicle into a ____________ follicle. | Thecal/ PreAntral. |
| Follicles in the preantral stage are further develop into a _______________ by the stimulation of ____________. | Antrum/ FSH |
| After about ______ weeks of rapid growth from FSH, the follicle is considered a mature follicle. | 2 |
| Name two Gonadotropins. | LH and FSH |
| What triggers the end of the Follicular phase? | The release of the oocyte from the follicle that is stimulated by LH. |
| What hormones does the corpus luteum secrete? | Estrogen and progesterone. |
| What is surrounding the mature oocyte when it is ruptured? | The Zona Pellucida and then the Corona Radiata. |
| What does estrogen and progesterone do? | They prepare the uterus and endometrium for implantation. |
| After ______ days, if a fertilized ovum does Not implant in the Uterus, the _____________ degenerates, which ends the _________ phase. | 14/ Corpus Luteum/ Luteal. |
| Name two things that LH does... | Triggers the release of Ovum and maintains the development of the Corpus Luteum. |
| LH is a stimulant to _______ cells. AND FSH is a stimulant to __________ cells. | Thecal/ Granulosa. |
| Which cells are on the most outer border of the follicle? | Thecal cells |
| High levels of which hormones prevent new follicles from growing and ovulating? | Progesterone and Estrogen |
| Low Levels of which hormones prevent new follicles from growing and Ovulating? | LH and FSH |
| Where does male Gametogenesis occur? | Seminiferous tubules of the testes. |
| What do Sertoli cells do? | They make hormones for sperm development. |
| What is the name for an immature sperm?/ Mature? | Spermatagonium./ Spermatozoan. |
| ________________ give rise to a continual supply of primary spermatocytes by mitosis. | Spermatogonium |
| Where does sperm development occur? and what aids in their development? | Seminiferous tubules/ Sertoli cells. |
| Which cells are outside of seminiferous tubules that make testosterone? | Leydig cells. |
| What is ABP and what does it do? | Androgen binding Protein/ It holds testosterone in the cell. |
| _____________ stimulates more testosterone production in ___________ cells. | Estrodial/ Leydig |
| ________ binds to _________ cells and increases ____________. | FSH/ Sertoli cells/ ABP |
| What is the composition of semen? | Fructose in seminal vesicle/ Alkaline solution from prostate gland, and mucus from bulbourethral gland. |
| What increases Testosterone concentrations? | ABP |
| FSH binds to _________ cells and stimulates the synthesis of ____________ and _______________., which increases ______________ concentrations. | Sertoli/ Inhibin/ ABP/ testosterone. |
| Name the steps and phases of the female ovarian cycle.. | Follicular Phase- 1.) starts with a primary follicle with a primary oocyte inside, that is covered by Granulosa cells. 2.) Local paracrines stimulate granulosa cells to proliferate and form Zona Pellucida around oocyte. 3.) Thecal cells develop around granulosa cells, converting the primary follicle into a "prenatal follicle". 4.) FSH stimulates further development into a secondary follicle. And Antrum forms. 5.) Antrum expands. 6.) After 2 weeks= Mature follicle. 7.) Midcycle ovulation occurs by triggering the rupture of the oocyte by LH./// Luteal Phase- 1.) Ruptured follicle develops into Corpus Lutuem under the influence of LH. 2.) Corpus Luteum secretes Progesterone and Estrogen to prepare for implantation. 3.) After 14 days if ovum is not implanted, then the corpus luteum degenerates. |
| What role does bicarbonate play in the digestive system? | Increases the pH within the small intestine for pancreatic enzymes to function. |
| During the storage phase of Micturation the ______________ N.S. relaxes the Detrusor muscle and tenses the Upper urethral sphincter. | Sympathetic |
| During Micturation, the __________________ N.S. contracts the detrusor muscle of the bladder and relaxes the Upper Urethral sphincter. | Parasympathetic. |
| Name 4 areas in the body where sodium potassium pumps are used and why... | 1.) Cardiac muscle, to produce AP's for heart contractions. 2.) Skeletal muscles- to generate AP's for muscle contraction. 3.) Urinary system- uses sodium potassium pumps to reabsorb Na+ and secrete K+. 4.) Nervous system- to produce AP's. |
| Name three Dissacharides. | Sucrose, lactose, and maltose. |
| Name three monossacharides. | Glucose, Fructose, Galactose. |
| What is simultaneous with the "Lub" sound in the heart? | Closing of AV valves |
| What is simultaneous with the "Dub" sound of the heart? | Closing of the Semilunar valves. |
| What percentage of the bloods oxygen is freely dissolved in the plasma? | 2% |
| What does the tubuloglomerular feedback locally regulate? | GFR |
| What is the average osmolarity of filtrate in the Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT)? What is the Osmolarity in the DCT?/ What is the Osmolarity of filtrate in the Tip of the Loop of Henle? What about the Ascending limb? | 300 mOsm/ 50-100 mOsm/ 1200 mOsm/ 100 mOsm |
| The release of lactic acid from your muscles while you run has what net effect? | More O2 will be delivered to acidic muscles and hemoglobin returning to the lung will be less saturated with O2. |
| Which hormone effects the GI tract on race day? | Epinephrine |
| What is the fluid filled space in the developing follicle called that has estrogen? | Antrum |
| What hormone promotes the development of the primary follicle into a secondary follicle? | FSH |
| What type of cells is the corona radiata made up of? | Granulosa cells |
| Name two organs that would be affected by hypertension and state why? | Heart- increased BP will create damage to blood vessels and create blood clots/ Kidneys- GFR will increase and break down GFR's ability to filter, causing protein in urine (kidney failure). |
| An increase in the diameter of the efferent arteriole will _________________ the GFR. | Decrease. |
| What is penicillin combined with to decrease its GFR? | Probenecid |
| What physiological threshold did the deflection point in the graph illustrate from the Conconi test? | Anaerobic threshold. |
| Why doesn't arterial pressure increase very much during the race for a trained marathon runner? | Collateral capillary beds are opened by relaxing smooth muscle sphincters. |
| Just before "Ovulation" there is a sharp rise in the levels of a particular "Gonadotropin". Name that hormone and the gland that secretes it. | LH, and is secreted by the Anterior Pituitary Gland. |
| Name a region of the brain that is involved with the regulation of basic subconscious processes like "respiration and cardiac rhythm". .. | Medulla Oblongata |
| Name 4 biomolecules and give an example of each... | 1.) Proteins- Na+/K+ Pump 2.) Lipids- Phospholipid bilayer. 3.) Carbohydrates- Glucose 4.) Nucleic Acid- DNA/RNA. |
