| A | B |
|---|
| Plutons | intrusive, igneous, bodies, found in plate boundaries |
| By shape and by their relationship to country rock | Plutons are described in 2 ways |
| Tabular (sheet like) & mushroom | Shapes of plutons |
| concordant | plutons whose boundaries are parallel to country rock |
| disconcordant | plutons whose boundaries angle across the layering of country rock |
| dikes | disconcordant pluton (up to 100m thick) |
| sills | concordant (parallel) pluton (cm - m in thickness) |
| Palisades Sill | well known sill in New Jersey |
| laccoliths | similar to sills but mushroom like |
| Henry Mountain, Utah | well known laccolith |
| Volcanic pipe | connects the crater of a volcano with the magma chamber |
| Volcanic neck | magma solidified in the pipe |
| batholith | where most of the magma is |
| stocks | smaller than batholith |
| Acidity | indication of the hydrogen ion concentration |
| Hydrogen | in acides you always see this element |
| pH | power of the hydrogen ion |
| pH scale | from 1 to 14 (7 is neutral) |
| greater than 7 | greater or less than 7 is acidic? |
| less than 7 | greater or less than 7 is basic? |
| 5.6 on the pH scale is normal rainfall | normal rainfall pH scale measurement |
| less than 5 on the pH scale | acid rain measures what on the pH scale? |
| CO2 | Atmosphere |
| N2O | Vehicles |
| SO2 | Industry |
| Robert Angus Smith | In 1872 "discovered" acid rain |
| 1961 | Year that acid rain became a public/environmental concern |
| Damage caused by acid rain | kills vegatation, animal life, deterioates buildings, monuments & tombstones |
| The Clean Air Act | Act created in 1990 to try to control the pollutants & acid rain in our environments |
| Oxidation | something combining with oxygen |
| Soil | the covering on the earth |
| Make up of soil | rocks & mineral fragments from weathering |
| humus | gives the soil a dark color/derived from decaying organic material & contains more carbon |
| fertile soil | supports plant life & link between parent material & life further in the ground |
| Soil Profile | OABC - starts to form at the top & works its way down |
| Soil Profile (top) O | few cm thick, sonsist of organic material plant & animal remains (lower - humus) |
| Soil Profile (second layer) A | Top Soil - more organic material than B or C - intense biological activity. fungus, worms, bacteria, nitrogen fixation |
| Zone of Leaching | chemical reactions in plants |
| Soil Profile (third layer) B | Subsoil (zone of accumulation) accumulates things that have perkolated down) |
| Soil Profile (lowest layer) C | altered & unaltered parent material |
| The Dust Bowl | 1930's - drought throughout the country |
| Maine & Vermont | States not affected by the Dust Bowl |
| Southern Great Plains | Areas mostly affected by the Dust Bowl |
| Soil conservation awareness | postive thing from the Dust Bowl |
| West to East | Winds blew during Dust Bowl in which direction |
| Soil Degradation | soil productivity is lost, vegatation can't grow |
| 5.3% of vegatation lost (17% in the world) | What happend to soil in North America during 1945-1990? |
| wind (type of erosion) | causes 28% of all soil degredation |
| water (type of erosion) | causes 56% of all soil degredation |
| sheet erosion | water evenly distributed |
| rill erosion | water makes channels in the land - removed by plowing gullies |
| Chemical degradation | nutrients are depleted from the earth |
| pollution | chemical spills, insecticides & industrial waste |
| salinization | salt getting into the soil |
| physical erosion | heavy machinery or cattle |
| sediment | derived from pre-existing rock (detrital) |
| gravel, sand, silt, clay (by size) | classification of sedimentary particles |
| gravel (can be seen with naked eye) | sedimentary particles more than 2mm |
| sand (can be seen with naked eye) | sedimentary particles 1/16 - 2mm |
| silt (can be seen only with a microscope) | sedimentary particles 1/256mm to 1/16mm |
| clay (can be seen only with a microscope) | less than 1/256mm |
| lithification | process of transforming sediment into sediment rock |
| fossils | paleontologist study - includes bones, shells, & teeth |
| body fossils | remains of organisms |
| trace fossils | traces of organisms - tracks, trails, burrows |
| Howe Quarry in Wyoming | extraordinary amounts of fossils found in 1934. |
| petrified wood | woody tissue is replaced by silicate (Quartz - Si(1)O(2) |
| natural gas | hydrocarbons - gaseous mixtrue found above the oil, less dense - used for cooking & heat |
| Petroleum | hydrocarbons |
| Hydrocarbons | remains of microscopic organisms found in seas & lakes - buried under layers of sediments, heated and transformed into hydrocarbons |
| source rock | where hydrocarbons are formed |
| reservoir rock | where hydrocarbons are contained |
| Uranium | comes from carnotite, uraninite & petrified trees |
| carnotite | minieral found in sedimentary rock |
| uraninite | UO(2) |
| banded iron formation | sedimentary rock of great importance (accounts for the majority of the iron-ore mined in the world) - Lake Superior |
| The Agents of Metamorphism | heat pressure (25% heats per km), fluid activity |
| Lithostatic pressure (heat pressure) | due to the weight above something pushing down in equal & all directions |
| Differential (heat pressure) | not equal in all directions & causes rocks to be distorted in shape |
| Types of fluid activity | water trapped in pour spaces, fluid from magma, hydrated minerals, anhydrated - water removed |
| Asbestos | 3000 known uses |
| Sperpentine (group of asbestos) | causes cancer |
| amphibole (group of asbestos) | less resistant to heat |
| characteristics of minerals | over 2000 kinds of minerals in earths crust, inorganic (not from plant life), definate chemical composition |
| contact, dynamic, regional | 3 types of metamorphism |
| when magma comes in contact with rock & alters the rock | contact |
| when rocks are under high pressure at a fault | dynamic |
| common in divergent & convergent bondaries | regional |
| time | distinguishes geology from other sciences |
| George de Buffon | scientist who used iron objects & extrapolated the earth to be 75,000 years old |
| John Joly | in 1870 - based the age of the earth to be 90,000,000 years old |
| Lord Kelvin | earth estimated to be 100,000,000 yrs old based on measuring heat loss |
| James Hutton | father of modern geology - thinking based on the principal of uniformitarism |
| principal of super position | "super posed" water has moved earth |
| principal of original horizontal | b/c of gravity, there are different layers - heaverier on bottom, lighter on top |
| principal of lateral continuity | sediment gets thinner as it spreads |
| Guide Fossils | sometimes called index fossils used to identify a time period |
| Mass Spectrometer | an instrument that measures proportions of elements of different masses |
| carbon 14 unstable | 5730 years half life then changed to carbon 12 |
| Tree Ring Dating | each ring represents 1 years growth |
| earthquakes | vibrations in the earth - caused bya release of stress energy. Also caused by volcanos - focus point of origin of an earthquake - from the focus, there are waves going in all directions |
| aftershocks | adjustments of rock material - last short or long periods of time |
| Shallow focus (90% of earthquakes) | origin not far down in the earth - less than 70km |
| intermediate focus | 70-300km |
| deep focus | greater than 300km |
| earthquake vibrations | major & minor waves |
| p-waves | primary, fastest, goes thru solid & liqued, compressional wave |
| s-waves | secondary, travel thru solid only, slower, perpendicular to wave |
| l-waves (Love) | eliptical |
| r-waves (Rayleigh) | perpendicular (back & forth) |
| seismograph | instrument to measure earthquakes - many stations |
| richter scale | measure the energy from waves |
| Mercalli Intensity scale | used to determine the damage of an earthquake (I is weak, XII is strong) |
