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| psychology | the scientific study of behavior that is tested through scientific research |
| theory | a set of assumptions used to explain phenomena and offered for scientific study |
| hypothesis | an assumption or prediction about behavior that is tested through scientific research |
| behaviorist | a psychologist who analyzes how organisms learn or modify their behavior based on their response to events in the environment |
| psychoanalyst | a psychologist who studies how unconscius motives and conflicts determine human behavior |
| psychiatry | a branch of medicine that deals with mental, emotional, or behavioral disorders |
| correlation | the measure of a relationship between two variables or sets of data |
| sample | the small group of participants, out of the total number available, that a researcher studies |
| longitudinal study | research method in which data is collected about a group of participants over a number of years to assess how certain characteristics change or remain the same during development |
| naturalistic observation | research method in which the psychologist observes the subject in a natural setting without interfering |
| single-blind experiment | an experiment in which the participants are unaware of which participants received the treatment |
| double blind experiment | an experiment in which neither the experimenter nor the particpants know which participants received which treatment |
| placebo effect | a change in a participant's illness or behavior that results from a belief that the treatment will have an effect, rather than the actual treatment |
| control group | the group that is treated in the same way as the experimental group except that the experimental treatment(the independent variable) is not applied |
| experimental group | the group to which an independent variable is applied |
| imprinting | inherited tendencies r responses that are displayed by newborn animals when they encounter new stimuli in their environment |
| socialization | the process of learning the rules of behavior of the culture within which an individual is born and will live |
| permissive family | children and adolescents have the final say; parents are less controlling and have a nonpunishing, accepting attitude toward children |
| authoritarian family | parents attempt to control, shape, and evaluate the behavior and attitudes of children and adolescents in accordance with a set code of conduct |
| democratic family | children and adolescents participate indecisions affecting their lives |
| identity crisis | a period of inner conflict during which adolescents worry intensely about who they are |
| clique | a small, exclusive group of people within a larger group |
| gender identity | the sex group to which an individual biologically belongs |
| Erik Erikson's theory | building an identity is a task that is unique to adolescence |
| social learning theory | empasis on the role of social and cognitive processes on how we perceive, organize, and use information |
| Erikson's idea of identity crisis | most adolescents must go through an identity crisis, a time of inner conflict during which they worry intensely about their identities |
| night terrors | sleep disruptions that occur during stage iv of sleep, screaming, panic,confusion |
| sleep apnea | sleep disorder in which a person has trouble breathing while asleep |
| insomnia | the failure to get enough sleep at night in order to feel rested the next day |
| REM sleep | stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements, a high leel of brain activity, a deep relazation of the muscles and dreaming |
| sleepwalking | walking or carrying out behaviors while asleep |
| consciousness | a state of awareness, including a person's feelings, sensations, ideas, and perceptions |
| biofeedback | the process of learning to control bodily states with the help of machines monitoring the states to be controlled |
| classical conditioning | a learning procedure in which associations are made between a natural stimulus and a neutral stimulus |
| shaping | technique in which the desired behavior is molded by first rewarding any act similar to the behavior and then requiring ever-closer approximations to the desired behavior before giving the reward |
| modeling | learning by imitating others;copying behavior |
| token economy | conditioning in which desirable behavior is reinforced with valueless objects, which can be accumulated and exchanged for valued rewards |
| learned helplessness | condition in which repeated attempts to control a situation fail, resulting in the belief that the situation is uncontrollable |
| operant conditioning | learning in which a certain action is reinforced or punished, resulting in corresponding increases or decreases in occurrence |
| B.F.Skinner | psychologist who believed that most behavior is influence by a person's history of rewards and punishments |
| Positive reinforcement | stimulus that is rewarding |
| Negative reinforcement | increasing strength of given response by removing or preventing a painful stimulus when the response occurs |
| motivation | an internal state that activates behavior and directs it toward a goal |
| Maslow's hierarchy of needs | pyramid of needs 1. at the base are the fundamental needs-physiological needs(satifsy hunger, thirst, sex, 2. Safety needs(feel secure, safe, and out of danger, Next are the psychological needs 3. belongingness and love needs(affiliated with others, be accepted and belong, 4. esteem needs(to achieve, be competent, gain approval and recognition, Self-actualization needs-5. the need to fulfill one's unique potential |
| Intrinsic motivation | engaging in activities because they are personally rewarding or because they fulfill our beliefs and expectations |
| Extrinsic motivation | engaging in activities that either reduce beiological needs or help us obtain external incentives |
| defense mechanisms | certain specific means by which the ego unconsciously protects itself agains unpleasant impulses or circumstances |
| id | the part of the unconscious personality that contains our needs, drives, instincts and repressed material |
| ego | the part of the personality that is in touch with reality and strives to meet the demands of the id and the superego in socially acceptable ways |
| superego | the part of the personality that is the source of conscience and counteracts the socially undesirable impulses of the id |
| introvert | a reserved, withdrawn person who is preoccupied with his or her inner thoughts and feelings |
| extravert | an outgoing, active person who directs his or her energies and interests towards other people and things |
| behaviorism | belief that the proper subject matter of psychology is objectively observable behavior and nothing else |
| humanistic psychology | a school of psychology that emphasizes personal growth and the achievement of maximum potential by each unique individual |
