| A | B |
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| Learning | a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience. |
| Classical conditioning | a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus (US) begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus. Also called Pavlovian or respondent conitioning. |
| Behaviorism | the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2). |
| Unconditioned response | in classical conditioned, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus, such as salivation when food is in the mouth. |
| Unconditioned stimulus | in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response. |
| Conditioned response | in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus. |
| Conditioned stimulus | in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response. |
| Extinction | the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus; occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced. |
| Spontaneous recovery | the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response. |
| Generalization | the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. |
| Discrimination | in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. |
| Operant conditioning | a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher. |
| Shaping | an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior. |
| Reinforcer or reinforcement | in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows. |
| Positive reinforcement | increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response. |
| Negative reinforcement | increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is a stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. |
| Primary reinforcer | an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need. |
| Conditioned (secondary) reinforcer | a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as secondary reinforcer. |
| Continuous reinforcement | reinforcing the desire response every time it occurs. |
| Partial (intermittent) reinforcement | reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement. |
| Fixed-ratio schedule | in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses. |
| Variable-ratio schedule | in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses. |
| Fixed-interval schedule | in operant condition, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed. |
| Variable-interval schedule | in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals. |
| Punishment | an event that decreases that behavior that it follows. |
| Intrinsic motivation | a desire to perform a behavior for its own sake. |
| Extrinsic motivation | a desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment. |
| Observational learning | learning by observing others. |
| Modeling | the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior. |
| Mirror neurons | frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy. |
| Prosocial behavior | positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior. |
